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TRAVELS 

IN 

SOUTH-EASTEHN ASIA: 

EMBRACING 

HINDUSTAN, MALAYA, SIAM AND CHINA; 

■WITH NOTICES OF 

NUMEKOUS MISSIONARY STATIONS, 

AND A FULL ACCOUNT OP 

THE BURMAN EMPIRE. 



BY HOWARD MALCOM, 

PEESIBENT OF THE UNIVEKSIIY AT LEWISBUKG, PA. 



WITH SIXTY-THREE ENGRAVINGS. 



PUBLISHED BY THE 
AMERICAN BAPTIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY 

118 ARCH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 






L 7 I 'i 



The American Baptist Publication Society lias placed this im- 
portant work among its issues by an arrangement which exoneratea 
it from assuming any pecuniary risk. The present proprietcr, (the 
author,) is to share the nett profits till two thousand copies are sold, 
when the entire stereotype plates, map, and steel engravings, which 
cost over nineteen hundred dollars, and the sole ownership of the 
copyright, will accrue to the Society. Thus is a standard and approved 
work added to our list, yielding an immediate pi'ofit, without engross- 
ing any of our capital, or involving any possibility of loss. 

It is believed that the extensive circulation of this volume will 
contribute greatly to the enlightened missionary zeal of our churches. 



By Transfer 

APft 25 1917 



PREFACE. 



The only aim of the foUoTfnng pages is utility. Had a place been 
sought among admired travellers, I should have given more descrip- 
tions, incidents, and delineations of private character ; and fewer 
facts, opinions, and reflections ; vrhich would at once have saved 
labor, and rendered me less vulnerable. 

Honest intentions, diligent inquiries, and fortunate opportunities, 
will not secure a traveller from errox's, even in Europe or America, 
where, in every place, we meet persons of veracity, and free to 
impart information. In the East, the case is much worse. The 
foreigner, dreaded for his power, and abhorred for his religion, 
excites both civil and religious jealousy. His manners often dis- 
please, by the omission of forms of which he may be ignoi'ant, or to 
which he cannot succumb. He is met with taciturnity, or wilful 
misrepresentation ; and if he escape these, he will generally encoun- 
ter ignorance. If he be so happy as to find both intelligence and 
communicativeness, the want of books, maps, charts, and statistics, 
renders the information of natives merely local, and often conflicting. 
Added to all, his interpreter may be unskilful. If he depends upon 
resident foreigners, their arrival may have been recent, or their 
opportunities small, or their inquiries negligent, or the statements 
of one may be flatly contradicted by those of another. All these 
embax'rassments have met me by turns, so that frequently, after 
laborious and continued inquiries, I have been compelled to lay aside 
the whole mass of notes, in the utter inability to decide whom to 
believe. I preferred silence, and apparent deficiency, to questionable 
stiitements. 

My advantages have, nevertheless, been great. I was sent out, 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

as the deputy and representative of one of the great American Mis- 
sionary Societies, to examine into, and with the missionaries adjust, 
many points not easily settled by correspondence ; to compare the 
various modes of operation in different missions ; to survey the 
field ; to compare the claims of proposed new stations ; to comfort, 
encourage, and strengthen the missionaries in their arduous work ; 
and to gather details on every point where the Board lacked informa- 
tion. Such a mission gave me confidence, in the eyes of all classes, 
■wherever I went ; and toleration in making investigations, which 
might otherwise have been deemed impertinent. The time spent at 
each place, was sufficient for deliberate inquiries, from various 
- sources. In most places, I found missionaries and civilians, who 
had lived long on the spot, and who gave me the fruits of mature 
and extended observations. My interpreters were in general not 
only thoroughly conversant with the language, but in the habit of 
familiar intercourse with the people, and possessing their confidence. 
Before leaving a place, I generally submitted my notes to several 
persons for a careful revision. If, therefore, I should be convicted 
of errors, they are such as the best informed persons on the spot 
have fallen into, and as my reader would have imbibed, had he been 
in my place. Some errors may be charged to me, through mistake 
of the objector ; for often, when I read my notes in various places, 
gentlemen dissented from some statements with great confidence, 
the correctness of which they admitted on further examination ; 
which examination they would not have made, had I not quoted some 
influential name as my informer. 

It is, of course, out of the question to quote authorities in a work 
not drawn from books. To have filled the margin with names would 
have been to violate propriety, while it could not add to the reader's 
confidence to quote persons wholly unknown to him. In every pai't 
of the work I have studiously sought brevity, lest, by diminishing 
its circulation, my great object should be defeated. 

The map is wholly original ; drawn from the topographical reports 
of British officers, nautical charts, surveys, and narratives of recent 



travellers. A very great amount of labor has been bestowed upon 
it, and innumerable differences will be found between it and those 
which preceded it. At the office of the surveyor-general in Calcutta, 
I was furnished with great facilities as to the parts under British 
government, through the personal kindness of Hon. T. B. Macaulay. 

The engravings ai'e, in no instance, copied from other books. 
With three exceptions, (the views of Maulmain, Tavoy and Mergui,) 
they are from my own sketch-book. They constitute an entirely 
new contribution to our stock of oriental illustrations. The view of 
Sagaing was taken from the door of Mr. Kincaid's house, and shows 
a section of his family boat, partly hid under the bank. The small 
size of Burman houses, and the fashion of filling their cities with 
stately fruit-trees, make them all appear to be far less populous than 
they really are. 

It would be a grateful task to acknowledge the kindnesses which 
were multiplied upon me in every place. But such matters belong 
to the sacred recollections of private history. To publish them all, 
would require constant repetitions, in which the reader could take 
no interest ; and to name a part, would be doing injustice to the rest. 
Suffice it to say, that I was every where most affectionately received, 
for my work's sake. Never had a man kinder homes when far from 
his own, not only among missionaries, but with private, civil, and 
military gentlemen. 

May He who blessed the enterprise, and bore me safely through, 
bless the publication 1 

Boston, February, 1839. 



PKEFACE 

TO THE NINTH AMERICAN EDITION. 



The rapid sale of eight editions of this work, and its republication, 
in separate editions, both in London and Edinburg, amounting in all 
to over 20,000 copies, is of coui'se highly gratifying to the author, 
not only as a seal of approbation on his labor but as a proof of 
"wide-spread interest in the Missionary cause. 

The book has been reviewed favorably in the leading magazines of 
America, England, and the East Indies, as well as in hundreds of 
newspapers, and noticed in many letters from missionaries, but no 
statement in it has ever been contradicted or corrected. When it is 
considered that very little is said of the mere incidents of travel, 
the truth of which, of course, no one could dispute, but that the 
book is crowded with facts, dates, prices, scenes, descriptions, and 
statistics ; commercial, political, scientific, and religious, this is 
certainly remarkable. I attribute it to my having written every 
thing on the spot, and always submitting the manuscript to compe- 
tent critics in each place. As Oriental countries are vei-y little 
subject to change, a book thus attested will remain for a century as 
valuable as at first. 

In the present edition, whatever the lapse of fourteen years had 
rendered superfluous, has been omitted. The work is thus divested 
of what possessed only a transient interest, and placed among per- 
manent histories. 

H. M. 

University at Lewisbubg, Pa., 
March, 1853, 



(6) 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

TRAVELS IN BURMAH. 

CHAPTER I. 

Departure — Employm ents — Illness — Comet — Company — Preach on 
Deck — Squall — Magellan Clouds — Send Letters — Trade Winds — 
Another Illness — Tristan d'Acunha — Portuguese Men-of-War — Ship 
Tigris for Ceylon — Encounter between a Whale and a Thresher — 
"Doubling Cape of Good Hope" — Day of Fasting and Prayer — 
Enormous Shark — Nicobar Islands — First Sight of Idolaters — 
' Kedgeree — Heavy Dews — Andaman Islands — Preparis and Narcon- 
dam — Conversion of Sailors 13 

CHAPTER 11. 

Arrival at Amherst — First Sabbath at Maulmain — Coasting Voyage 
— Moungmagoung — Curiosity of the People — Walk over the Moun- 
tain — Tavoy — Mata — Karens; their Piety, Liberality, Temperance, 
Gratitude; Letters from Young Converts; Churches — Mergui 
— Storm — Disagreeable Insects — Variety of Costumes — Karen 
Juggler 35 

CHAPTER IIL 

Return to Maulmain — Missionary Conference — Preaching — Balu 
Island — Karen Churches near Maulmain — Water Festival — Chinese 
Ceremony — The Mohurrum — River Excursion — Remarkable Caves 
— Karen Christian Village — Church-Meeting and Baptism — Popu- 
lation of Maulmain — Commerce — State of Boodhism — State of the 
Mission — English Influence 61 

CHAPTER IV. 

Population of Rangoo"n ; Commerce ; Prices of Living — Shoodagon 

(7) 



Pagoda — Slaves of the Pagoda — Sunrise Worship — Rainy Monsoon 
— Mission — Voyage to Pegu — Evidences of former Greatness — 
Shoomadoo Pagoda — Voyage up the Irrawaddy — Boats — Mode of 
Fishing — Prome — Leper ViHage — Gaudama's Foot — Burman 
Energy — Earth-Oil Wells — Shy an Caravan — Ruins of Paghan — 
Attempt to buy Beef — Buffalo Herdmen — Cui'iosity of Natives — 
Toddy — Arrival at Ava 67 



CHAPTER V. 

Ava — Splendid Kyoungs — Pagodas — Priests — Palace — Population — 
Arts — Prices — The Mekara Prince — Meawade Woongyee — The 
Bui-raan Pontiff — Surrawa Prince — Climate of Ava — History of the 
Mission in Ava — Roman Catholics — Sagaing — Marble Quarries — 
Mengoon Pagoda — Coral Strands — Taking leave of Burmah. . 87 



PART II. 

DIGESTED NOTES ON THE BURMAN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Term India — Hither and Farther India — Boundaries of Burmah 
— History of the Empire — War -with the British — Dismemberment 
of the Tennasserim Provinces — State of the Succession. . . 109 

CHAPTER 11. 

Features of Country — Climate — Mountains — Minerals — Rivers — Soil 
— Productions .... 119 

CHAPTER III. 

Population — Form and Features — Buildings — Food — Dress — Man- 
ners and Customs — Character — Condition of Women — Marriage — 
Polygamy — Divorce — Diseases — Medical Practice — Midwifery — 
Funerals — Amusements — Musical Instruments — Manufactures. 130 

CHAPTER IV. 

Government — Orders of Nobility — Grades of Community — Magis- 
tracy — Laws — Division of Property 161 



CHAPTER V. 
Revenue — Commerce — Currency — Slavei-y 171 

CHAPTER VI. 

Extent of Boodhism — Meaning of the Tei'm — Antiquity of the 
System — History of Gaudama — The next Boodh — The Bedagat — 
Theory of the Universe— The Four Islands — This Island, or the 
Earth — Origin and Fall of Man — Celestial Regions — Hells — No 
eternal God — Universe eternal— Moral Code — Merit — Discourse of 
Gaudama — Religious Edifices — Images — Impressions of Gaudama's 
Foot — Worship — Offerings — Public Days — Superstitions — Nat- 
Woi'ship — Priests : their Dress, Residences, Morals, Office, Sup- 
port, Numbers, Orders, Funerals — Priestesses — Sects — Toleration 
— Remarks 180 



PART III. 

TRAVELS IN HINDUSTAN, MALAYA, SIAM 
AND CHINA. 

CHAPTER I. 

Voyage to Calcutta — Saugor Island — Hoogly Elver — Landing — 
Houses — Servants — Streets — Weddings — Doorga Pooja — General 
Assembly's School — Benevolent Institution — Orphan Refuge — ■ 
Central School — The Martiniere — Leper Hospital — Operations of 
Education Committee — Colleges — Progress of the English Lan- 
guage — Use of Roman Alphabet — Native Periodicals — Hindu and 
Mahometan Edifices — Ram Mohun Roy — Bromha Sobha — Popu- 
lation of Calcutta — Expenses of Living — Habits of Extravagance 
— Morals — Religion — Clergy — Places of Worship — Missionary 
Operations — Christian Villages — Hinduism shaken — Serampore ; 
Aspect ; Population ; Marshman ; College ; Grave- Yard — Opera- 
tions of the Mission 215 



CHAPTER IL 

Madras — Catamarans — Difficulty of Landing — Black Town — Espla- 
nade — Population — Illustrations of Scripture — State of Religion 
— Catholics — Teloogoos — Travelling by Palankeen — Pondicherry 
— Cuddalore — Trauquebar — Combaconum — Tanjore — Kohlhoff — 



10 CONTENTS. 

Swartz — Tricbinopolj' — Heber — Seringham — Slavery in Hindustan 
— Idolatry suppoi-ted by Government — Brahmins and Brahminism 
— Progressive Poverty of the Country 251 

CHAPTER III. 

Voyage to Singapore — Coasters — Prices of Passage in India — Straits 
of Malacca — Harbor and Town of Singapore — Climate — Produc- 
tions — Commerce — Islaraism — Population — Moral Character of 
Population — Orang Louts — Chinese Wedding — Missionary Opera- 
tions — Malacca — History of the Settlement — Extent — Population 
— Progress of Christianity — Anglo-Chinese College — Common 
Schools — Malay Peninsula — Origin of Malay Race — Divisions. 281 

CHAPTER IV. 

Take Leave of British India — European Manners — Voyage to Bankob 
— River Meinam — Paknam — Audience with the Governor — Situa- 
tion of Bankok — Floating Houses — General Appearance — Visit to the 
Pra Klang ; Servile Forms of Politeness — Chow Fah ; Singular 
Custom — Pra Nai Wai— Present of an Elephant; Of a Cochin- 
Chinese Slave — Police of Bankok — Climate — Wats — Houses — 
Streets — Bridges — Somona Codom — History of Siara — Extent of 
the Empire — Population — Personal Appearance of Siamese — Dress 
— Amusements — Military Force — Commerce — Prices of Provision 
— Fruits — Cui-rency — Character — Degree of Civilization — Slavery 
— Language — Establishment of the Mission — Mission Premises — 
Constitution of the First Church in Siam 303 

CHAPTER V. 

Voyage to Canton — China Sea — Mouth of Pearl River — Outside 
Pilots — Lintin — Bocca-tigris — Whampoa — Innumerable Boats — 
Evidences of dense Population — Dollar-Boat — River Scenery — 
Population of Canton — Foreign Factories or Hongs — Walks in the 
Suburbs — Streets — Shops — Vacant Spaces — Placards — Perambu- 
latory Trades — Booksellers — Circulating Libraries — Map of the 
World — Beggars — Small-footed Women — Trades — Labor-saving 
Machinery — Chinese Piety — Tombs — Visit to a Hong Merchant — 
Restrictions on Foreigners — Temples — Priests and Nuns — Pagodas 
— Chinese Sects — Introduction of Boodhism — Jos— State of Morals 
in the Foreign Society — The Magnitude and Horrors of the Opium 
Trade 328 



CHAPTER VL 

Embark for Home — Straits of Gaspar and Sunda — Petty Monsoon — 
Cape of Good Hope — Remarkable Phenomenon — St. Helena — False 
Alarm— Slave Trade— Landing at Newport — Summary — Reflec- 
tions 3-18 



11 



PART IV. 



A PRACTICAL VIEW OF MODERN MISSIONS. 



CHAPTER I. 

On the Measure of Success which has attended Modern Mis- 
sions. — Introduction. — I. The Number of Missionaries. — II. The 
Kind of Labor performed: Preparatoiy; Collateral; Additional; 
Erroneous. — III. Disadvantages of Modern Missionaries : Imper 
feet Knowledge of the Language ; Poverty of the Languages 
themselves ; Want of Familiarity with the Religion and People ; 
Degraded State of the Natives ; Inability to live as they live ; 
Being Foreigners; The Structure of Society; The prevailing 
Philosophy ; The Presence of nominal Christians ; Popery. — IV. 
Efforts which do not reach the Field. — V. The Amount accom- 
plished : A large Force in the Field ; Impediments removed ; 
Translations made ; Languages reduced to Writing ; General Lit- 
erature imparted ; Tracts written ; Grammars, Dictionaries, and 
other Helps prepared; Immense Distribution of Bibles and Tracts; 
Mechanical Facilities created ; Schools established, and Youth 
already educated ; Blessings of Christian Morality diff"used ; Idol- 
atry in some Places shaken ; Effects on Europeans abroad ; Actual 
Conversions. — VI. Effects on the Churches at Home — Remarks. 35G 



CHAPTER II. 

On the Mode of Conducting Modern Missions. — Schools — Trans- 
lations and Tracts — Preaching in English — Periodicals — Use of 
the Roman Alphabet — Missionary Physicians — Unnecessary Dis- 
play and Expense — Direct Preaching to Natives — Formation of 
Regular Churches — Qualifications of Native Assistants — ^Instruc- 
tion in the English Language — Intermission of Operations — 
Division of Labor — Concentration — Choice of Fields — Remarks. 388 



Opinions of Rev. A. Judson and Rev. F. Wayland 428 

Index 429 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



View of Tavoy, on steel. Frontispiece. 

Map of South-Eastern Asia 13 

The Grave of Mrs. Judson 36 

View of Mergui, on steel 46 

Boardman's Tomb 50 

View of Maulmain, on steel 61 

Maulmain Printing OfiBce 65 

Mr. Judson's House 66 

Ascending the Irrawaddy 75 

Burman Ox Cart 86 

Ground Plot of Ava 87 

Burman Gentleman's Carriage 90 

View of Sagaing, on steel 101 

Burman King's Boat 102 

Warder, or Balu 108 

New Pagoda at Ava 118 

Junction of the Kyendween 125 

Jack-Tree and Fruit 127 

Mango 128 

The Plantain Tree 129 

Stand for Eating 134 

Burman Shoe 135 

Burman Lady 135 

Spittoon 138 

Burman Gentleman and Follow- 
ers 139 

Beating the Gong 155 

Drums 155 

Burman Lamp 156 

Assaying Silver 157 

Cleaning Cotton 158 

Irrigating a Rice Field 179 

Gaadama 183 



Page 

Burman Zayat 193 

Statue of a Lion 194 

Streamer 195 

Gaudama's Foot 196 

Priest Walking out 201 

Priest Preaching 203 

Burning Ponghee 209 

A Bheestie 222 

Hindu Woman 223 

Wedding Procession 223 

Bengal Washerman 224 

Mode of Churning 250 

Hindu Gentleman's Carriage 253 

Palankeen Travelling 259 

A Pecotta 262 

Seringham Gateway 269 

A Brahmin 278 

Nutmeg 287 

Bankok Floating House 307 

Siam Lady sitting 310 

Site of Bankok 312 

Siam Woman and Child 317 

Baptist Mission Premises at Ban- 
kok, in Siam 325 

Chinese Junk 327 

Chinese Boat 331 

Chinese Tomb 339 

Chinese Temple 341 

Chinese Pagoda 343 

The Chinese Boodh 345 

Chinese Shoe 347 

Specimens of Oriental Lan- 
guages, on steel 356 




1_ Aa "^^iti^^ 



PART I. 

TRAVELS IN BURMAH, CIIITTAGONG, 
AND ARRACAN. 



CIIArXER L 



Departure — Employments — Illness — Comet — Coin pany — Preach on Deck 

— Squall — Magellan Clouds — Send Letters — Trade- Winds — Another 
Illness — Tristan d'Acunha — Poruig-uese Men-of'-VVar — Ship Tigris for 
Ceylon — Encounter between a Wliale and a Thrasher — " Doubling Cape 
of Good Hope" — Day of Fasting — Enormous Shark — Nicobar Islands 

— First Sigiit of Idolaters — Kedgeree — Heavy Dews — Andaman Islands 

— Preparis and Narcondam. 

How cordial and comprehensive are the sympathies of true 
reHgion ! Who that saw the Louvre, with her eleven ordained 
ministers, about to spread her canvass, could fail to contrast the 
scene with ordinary shipping operations ? Over all the wharf 
is one dense mass of grave and silent spectators, while tlie decks 
and rigging of the adjacent ships are filled with younger, but not 
less intent observers. No sound interrupts the ascending prayer. 
The full harmony of a thousand voices wafts to Heaven the 
touching hymn. Coimtless hands, tlu'ust toward the narrow 
passway, seek the last token of recognition. Even the aged, 
unaccustomed to tears, weep, not from bitterness, but in exu- 
berance of love. 

But here are none of the customary inducements to convene a 
crowd. A ship sailing with passengers is no novelty. One of 
the number was, indeed, the pastor of a large and most affec- 
tionate congregation ; but with the others, in general, the multi- 
ttide had no acquaintance. Personal attachments, tlieretbre, had 
not assembled the people. There was, in fact, nothing in the 
scene, which could call forth a general interest, but its religious 
character. The regular packet, crowded with passengers, leaves 



A 
^1 





IS. 



14 VOVAGE Ol'T. 

our shores, wliile only here and there a group of personal friends 
look on with interest. The merchantman unfurls his sails, but 
his destuiation and objects ai'e not regarded. But the mission- 
ary! he awalvens tlie sympathy of every believer. Stranger 
though he be, all press to grasp his hand, and, when gone, all 
intercede for him with God. Even denominational preferences 
are forgotten, and eveiy sect mingles in the throng, exultuig 
hi a conunon joy. 

But all this is a mere fraction of the fruits of Christian 
charity. The same expansive benevolence embraces the unseen, 
unluiown heathen. Intense interest lor those sends forth these 
self-denying ones, and draws from Christians at home the re- 
quisite funds. The ivoiid is the field over which the eye of the 
Christian wanders, and for all of which he will labor and praj', 
while he has being. O blessed gospel, which thus makes man 
the friend of man, and excites in the heart all that is pure, joy- 
ous, and benevolent ! 

Never did a ship leave Boston harbor more nobly. A fine 
Avind, and favoring tide, bore us on so rapidly as scarcely to leave 
us time to gaze one lingering farewell to the faint outlines of the 
great and beautiful city. In two hours the pilot left us, bearing 
brief notes of affectionate remembrance to friends behind. Soon 
we found ourselves in the midst of scores of beautiful schooners, 
engaged in mackerel fishing. So thickly did they lie along the 
horizon, as to resemble streets of stately white houses. Even 
these, at length, sunk into the dim distance, and we dashed on 
till niglit closed in, and the breeze hushed itself to rest. 

Wednesday, Sept. 23, 1835. Light winds and a smooth sea 
gave us a night of quiet repose ; but as the sun rose cloudless out 
of the sea, the wind freshened on our quarter, ai;d amid an array 
of studding-sails we made fine progi-ess. Most of the passengers, 
alas! Icel no relish for the noble sight of ocean, and the rapid 
plunging of our gallant ship. Sea-sickness, that most disj)iriting 
of all maladies, oi)presses them. Mr. Sutton and myself, how- 
ever, being iiuired to the unnatural motion, are so far exempt as 
to be able to act the part of nurses. Between attending the sick, 
and making last the baggage, I found ample employment for 
the day. 

My heart fills with tender and grateful emotions, as I arrange 
the various gifts of friendship and regard which almost fill my 
state-room. Nothing that ex])erience could dictate, or imaghiation 
suggest, as requisite for my comfort, seems wanting. My sweet 
but oppressive emotions find relief only in pouring out before 



EMPLOYMENTS MEDITATIO.NS. 15 

Gj(1 fervent thanks, and imploring liiui to remeniljer liisproniir>e, 
that a cup of cold water given to a disciple, because he is u 
disciple, shall not lose its reward. 

24. The wuid has continued favorable, and we are already ad- 
vanced on our way nearly 500 miles. The skylight in my state- 
room proves sufficient. The round-house, (so called,) on deck, is 
an invaluable comfort, and will be esi)eciaily so in rainy weather 
In the evening, such as were well enough commenced family 
worship in the cabin. 

Sunday, 27. Still fine and favoring breezes. The awning being 
extended, and seats arranged, br. Sutton preaclied this morning 
an appropriate and interesting discoui'se. Most of the passengers 
able to attend. As many were singers, I led the psalmody with 
nij^ flute, and we raised hosannas, not unacceptable, we trust, even 
to the ear of God. Four of the crew attended. Our entire com- 
pany then resolved themselves into a Bible-class, to meet every 
Lord's-day afternoon at half past three, and requested me to take 
charge of it. We selected the Acts of the Apostles, as most appro- 
priate to missionary work. Till the an-ival of the appointed hour, 
on eveiy side were seen the brethren and sisters, busy with Dod- 
diidge, Henry, Scott, Barnes, Adam Clarke, &c. &c. Each reci- 
tation will embrace a chapter, and occupy from one to two hours. 

Satm-day, Oct 10. Amid the numerous discomforts of a long 
sea voyage, one is thrown upon his own resources, both for im- 
]irovement and pleasure. But the mmd accustomed to view with 
intelligent and devout contemplation the works of God, can sel- 
dom be without materials for lofty and purifying thought. And 
surely the wide ocean and wider sky present a rich field for the 
expatiation of our noblest thoughts. Pacing the deck, or leaning 
against the bulwarks, toward setting sun, it would seem as though 
the most gross and thoughtless mind must rise, and ex})aud, and 
feel delight. Far and near rolls " old Ocean." Before Jehovah 
spread out the fairer sceneiy of the dry land, these restless bil- 
lows swelled and sparkled beneath the new-made funianient. 
Thousands of years then- wide expanse remained a trackless 
waste, 

" Unconquerable, unreposed, untired, 
And rolled the wild, profound, eternal bass, 
In nature's anthem." 

Tiie storm then found no daring mariner to brave its fury, and 
the gentle breeze no repose on the fair canvass of the lordly sliip. 
Age after age, the fowls of heaven and the tenants oi' the deep 



1(3 VOYAGE OUT. 

lield imdisinited empire. J3ut now, every ocean is added to tlie 
(loiiiiiiiou of man. He captures its rulers, he makes its surges 
liis highway, and so dexterously adjusts his spreading canvass, 
as to proceed, in the very face of its winds, to his desued haven. 
IJut, O I how many have found in these same billows a grave ! 
How many a gallant ship has "sunk like lead in the mighty wa- 
ters," wiiere beauty and vigor, wealth and venerableness, learning 
and piety, find undistinguished graves ! To these lone deserts 
of i)ure waters man pursues his brother with murderous intent — 
the silence is broken by thundering cannon — the billows bear 
away the stain of gore, and all that storm ever swallowed up 
have been outnumbered by the victims of a battle. O war! 
when will thy horrid banner be forever furled ! 

Reflection, following the chasing waves, passes on to the shores 
they lave, and there looks over nations, and beholds men in their 
manners, customs, follies, and crimes, their loves and hates, their 
joys and sorrows, their enthusiastic pursuit ol" wealth, and amaz- 
ing disregard of Heaven. How interminable and salutary are the 
tlioughts thou inspirest. Ocean ! whether we regard thy age, thy 
beauties, thy wrath, thy silence, thy treasures, thy senices^ to 
man, thy praise to God, or the scenes which have been acted 
on thy surface ! 

But while we thus muse and speculate, tlie glories of sunset 
fade into sober gray, the billows take a deeper tuige, stars multi- 
ply, and soon we stand beneath a firmament glowing with ten 
thousand fii-es. Here ai-e vaster, sublimer fields for thought. 

" Hail, Source of Being ! Universal Soul 
Of heaven and earth ! Essential Presence, liail ! 
To Thee I bend the knee ; to Thee my thoughts 
Continual climb ; who, with a master hand. 
Hast the great whole into perfection touched." 

How ennobling and purifying is the study of astronomy ! How 
delicious the Christian's hope of soon roaming among these works 
of infinite wisdom and power, ever learning, adoring, rejoicing, 
improving; ever becoming more full of God, and of glory, and 
of joy ! 

1 ought to mention that on the 28th Sept. we had a meeting to 
agree upon some general measures for the profitable employment 
of our time. It was unanimously agreed that, in addition to our 
daily family worship, prayer-meetings should be held every Sun- 
day and Wednesday evenuigs ; that the brethren officiate al])ha- 
betically at public worship on deck, and in asking a blessing 



ILLNESS AFRICA. 17 

flui'iiig one day at table ; that the monthly conceit ol' j)ra} er be 
held at the same hour as tiie otlier evenhig meetings; that I 
should deliver on Thursday evenings a coiu-se of lectures ou 
missions, missionary measures, and missionaiy fields ; and that 
br. Sutton should deliver occasional lectures ou modern my- 
thology and the state of the heathen. 

12. Head winds, the past three or four daj's, have kept us pitch- 
ing shai-ply, and put all our invalids again on the sick list. To- 
day, we have a fah" wind, which has already smootlied the sea, 
and our friends are better. We are withui twelve or tlihleen 
degrees of the Cape Verds, but expect to go much nearer, though 
not probably m sight. 

Smiday, Oct. 18. Crossed the troi)ic of Cancer. Not being 
able to command voice enough to preach on deck, I attemjjted it 
tliis evenhig, by general request, in the cabin. Other bretluen 
performed all tlie devotional exercises, but my tluoat sutFerefl 
considerably. — It is remarkable that we have not yet met the 
north-east ti-ade-wind, which prevails generally as high as SS"^. 
iiut He who sent us will give us such speed as pleases Hun. 

23. Have been confined to my bed %vith an attack on the 
bowels, which on Monday laid a severe hold upon me. Am now 
about, but able to eat nothhig but a Uttle oatmeal gruel. The ten- 
der care and sympathy of my brethren, and still more of the sis- 
ters, is veiy sweet. What a blessed home would this world be, if 
Christian love pei^vaded eveiy bosom I It is exceedingly gi-ati- 
fymg that harmony and kind feelmg prevail among all om- pas- 
sengers, though so different in temper, age, and previous pur- 
suits ; and comprising, as we do, fom* distmct denominations. 

Sailing, for the last two days, along the coast of Africa, it is 
impossible to avoid frequent thoughts of that devoted land. How 
deep the darkness which covers it ! How few the points where 
Clu-istianity kindles her fire ! How wi-etched, even in temporal 
things, its thronging millions, and how utterly secluded from the 
improvements of the age ! Yet the word of the Lord once re- 
sounded along these shores, and triimiphed over the vast interior. 
African philosophers, ministers, and generals, came not behind 
the greatest of then' time. Why, and how, the dreadful cluuige ? 
" Verily, there is a God, that ruleth m the earth ! " 

Yesterday we caught the fij^st faint zephyrs of the noi'tli-east 
trade-wind, and to-day it has increased to its regulai- velocity ; that 
is, we go at six or seven miles an hour. We are all glad, and I 
trust thankful. 

Saturdav, 24. Have been deeplv interested to-night in observ- 
1* 



18 VOYAGE OUT. 

ing tlie comet, which cloudy nights have hitherto kept invisible. 
Here we are, cahuly gazing at tlie identical thing, which, hy its 
amazing brilliance, spread such universal panic in 145G. Ail 
Europe seemed to believe that the day of" judgment was at hand. 
The pope (Calixtus III.) partook of tiie alarm. Orderijig all 
church bells to be rung eveiy day at noon, (a practice which has 
smce widely prevailed,) he required all good Christians to say 
the "Ave Maiia" thrice a day, with this addition, ^ Save us from 
the Turk, ike Devil, and the Comet." He went further, and had 
tlie comet, in regular form, excommunicated every day ! But the 
patient luminal^ filled the coffers of its ghostly anathematizers. 
Licalculable treasiues were ])oured into the hands of j)ricsts, 
from the guilty and the affrighted ; and the vilified comet " hold- 
ing on the even tenor of his way," passed out of sight. It has 
a})peared every seventy-five years since that time, (though with 
(hminished brightness ;) and Science, the handmaid of Religion, 
has now made it an object of calm calculation and ennobled 
piety. 

We have for some days had a continual temperature of about 
80°. With an awning over the deck, and our thinnest clothes, 
we keep comfortable on deck, though hardly so below. 

27. Am nearly well, though not yet able to pai-take of com- 
mon food. Thanks to my gracious Lord, past sufferings have 
not been so utterly unimproved, as to permit me now to be either 
terrified or querulous vmder the endurance of evil, so called. I 
feel that rei)eated afflictions come not as lightnings on the scathed 
tree, blasting it yet more, but as the strokes of the sculptor on 
the marble block, forming it to the image of life and loveliness. 
Let but the divine presence be felt, and 140 lot is hard. Let me 
but see His hand, and no event is unwelcome. 

Friday, 30. The monotony of a calm (for the trade-wind 
has already failed us) has been agreeably relieved yesterday 
and to-day by the neigliljorhood of two ships, much larger than 
our own — one English, the other American. The English 
ship (the John Bany, of London) has 260 convicts for Sydney, 
in New South Wales. They swaimed on the whole deck, and 
in the rigging, while men under ai'ms stood sentry over them. 
There were probably some troops also on board, as there were 
several officers on the quarter-deck, and a fine band of music. 
This was politely mustered yesterday, when we were as near as 
we could safely sail, and played for an hour or two very delight- 
fully. As the music swelled and died away in heaving and ex- 
quisite cadences, now gay, now ])laintive, and now rising into 



PREACH ON DECK — SOUTH-EAST TUADE. 19 

martial i>oinp, — it not only refreshed, and sootlied, and exhila- 
rated, but awakened trains of not unprofitable thought. They he- 
longed to oiu- tather-Iand j they came from the noblest nation 
etuth ever saw ; they were but lately au'ayed against us in 
Jiorrid war ; they bore to a distant home a motley crew of refined 
and vulgar, educated and ignorant, now reduced by sin to 
common convicts and exiles. And was God acknowledged 
among them? Did any of them go to him in their distresses .' 
Would they in exile finish an inglorious life, and meet the second 
death ? Or, will some faithful jireacher find them there, under 
whose admonitions they may recover earthly honor, and find 
eternal life ? O that then* native land may long remain the pil- 
lar of freedom, the somxe of noble missionary endeavor ; that 
her stupendous navy may rot in peace ; that this ship may have 
souls born to God among her crowd, and that the convict colony 
may soon be a part of Christ's precious church ! 

The American ship was the Canada, of New York, Capt. Hicks, 
a noble ship, whose sailing greatly surpasses ours. We went on 
board, and spent half an hour veiy pleasantly. 

Monday, Nov. 2. A perfect calm yesterday enabled me to 
preach on deck. Eveiy person on board was present, except the 
man at the wheel, and one sick in the forecastle. Our national 
flag, wrapped round the capstan, made a romantic pulpit, while 
another, extended aci'oss the shij), just behind my back, from the 
a^vning to the deck, made us a beautiful tabernacle, and gave a 
chai-ming aspect of comjjactness and sociability to our little con- 
vocation. O that God would bless the endeavor to the souls of 
our unconverted fellow-voyagers ! We often converse with the 
men individually ; but though they receive remarks with kind- 
ness, and seem to possess many good qualities, I perceive no 
particular anxiety on the subject of religion resting on the 
mind of any of them. The brethren and sisters seem truly 
prayerful for their conversion. This was peculiai-ly manifest this 
evening at om* monthly concert of prayer, and is shown at all our 
social meetings. I visit the sick sailor frequently, and cany him 
little delicacies; but his extreme sufferings ai-e as yet fruitless of 
spiritual good. 

Thursday, 5. Reached the south-east trade-wnd, and are 
going gayly, with a steady breeze, at the rate of seven miles an 
hour. Those who have not been to sea can scai'cely realize the 
exliilaration of spirit produced bj' a strong favoring wind, after 
weai-isome delays. We had scarcely made any advance for ten 
days, and were almost weary of delay. Wlien we had wind, it 



20 VOYAGE OUT. 

was in severe squalls, accompauied with IicaA^ showers. The 
majesty ol' aftiv sliarp squalls, however, repays one for tJie dtui- 
ger they may involve, and tempts the tunid passenger to brave 
the wind axid a wetting, for the pleasure of the sight. Every 
sluggish sailor is converted instantly into a hero. Eveiy order is 
obeyed on the run. The lofty display of canvass, which had 
been flapping against the masts, is rapidly reduced, as the threat- 
ening cloud draws on. Regardless of the huge drops which now 
liegin to descend, the captain stands at the weather bulwai-k, 
jieering, through half-closed lids, into the gathering gloom. Fit- 
ful gusts herald the approaching gale. More canvass is taken 
in ; the waves are lashed to foam ; the wuid howls through the 
rigging; the bulk-heads creak and strain ; the ship careens to the 
water's edge; and the huge spray springs over the weather 
bow: then comes the rain m torrents; the mainsail is furled, 
the spanker brailed up, and the man at the wheel is charged 
to "mind his weather helm," Soon the whole force of the 
blast is upon us. " Hard up ! " roars the captain. " Hca-d np, sir ! " 
responds the watchful helmsman. The noble thing turns her 
back to the tremendous uproar, and away we scud, conscious 
of safety, and thrilling with emotions of sublimity. 

The rush is over ! The dripping seamen expand again the 
venturous canvass — the decks are swabbed — the tropical sim 
comes out gloriously — we pair ourselves to pj-omenade — and 
evening smiles from golden clouds, that sjjcak of day-gladdened 
realms beyond. And now the rolhng billows, disrobed of their 
Ibamuig glitter, quiet themselves for the repose of night, while 
the blessed moon beams mildly from mid-heaven. 

" Thou art, O God ! the life and light 
Of all this wondrous world we see ; 
Its glow by day, its smile by nigiit, 

Are but reflections caught from thee ! 
Where'er we turn, thy glories shine, 
And all things bright and fair are thine." 

Friday, Nov. 6. Just before sunset, crossed the equator, in 
longitude 28° W. ; 45 da3's from Boston ; having sailed, by log, 4G40 
miles. Among the hnprovements of recent years is the abroga- 
tion, in most ships, of the absurd and inhuman practices which 
used to prevail at this ])oint of a voyage, in regard to such as 
crossed the line for the first time. Strange that a custom so bar- 
barous should ever have existed — more sti-ange that it still is 
tolerated by some captains — and almost mcredible that Christian 



AQUATIC NOVELTIES. 21 

missionaries and venerable fathers in the church should not be 
txenipt. But two or three years since, two young missionaries 
liom Englaud to India were subjected to its full rigors ; and 
tven Tyerman and Bennett did not wholly escape ! Alas, how 
many proofs there are of our slowness to leai'u to love our neigh- 
bor as ourselves ! Our captain permitted nothing of the sort, and 
remarked, that the sight of these inflictions early determined him, 
that, if ever he became master of a vessel, he would utterly 
forbid tliem. 

Numerous buds, but of what species I cannot learn, have been 
around us for several days. Sometimes we are surrounded by 
them, in flocks of several kinds, generally very large. The fine, 
brisk trade-wind we now enjoy, imparts a delightful coolness to 
the an- on deck, though it is difficult to be comfortable below. 
Thermometer 79'' to 83°. 

9. For some days, Ave have been indulged with aquatic novelties, 
which sei-ve to vaiy om* monotony, and create topics for our many 
journal izers. Blacldish, bonetas, flying-fish, dolphms, porpoises, 
gulls, &c., summon our new voyagers to the side, and excite no 
little interest. These are so abundantly described in elementary 
books, that no description of them need be given here. We 
found the dolphin very good eating, white, dry, and resembling 
the pike, or pickerel, in taste. The descriptions of the flying-fish 
which 1 have read are not correct in stating that they have no 
])ower really to fly, but only spring from the water, and, guiding 
themselves with their huge pectoral fins, keep up a little while, 
in the direction of the wind. We often see tliem actually flyuig, 
and skimmhig up and down, acconmiodating themselves to the 
waves, and going GO or 70 yards at a time, but generally in a di- 
rection from the ship, which they seem to think is some enemy. 
Poor things ! they lead a precai'ious life ; for many, both of the 
wateiy and feathered tribes, make them a constant prey. 

Last evening, caught a booby, [pelicanus sula,) and to-day I suc- 
ceeded in getting a Mother Caiey's chicken, or storm petrel, {pro- 
ciUaria pelagica,) by trailing a thread in which its wings became 
entangled. The booby sat doggedly on the mizzen royal yard, 
and, as the mate approached him, kejjt edging off", till he got to 
the veiy end of the spar, but would not fly, and suffered himself 
to he caught. As they AviJl bite severely when attacked, he was 
suddenly seized by the neck, and brought below. He has re- 
mained on deck all day, without attempting to fly, and looking as 
stupid as possilile. The storm petrel is about the size of a small 
robin ; dai'k brown, witli a broad cii'cle of white at the root of 



iJ2 VOTAGE OUT. 

the tail ; black, hooked bill ; long, slender legs ; and ample, 
Avebbed feet. Fond of the bits of grease, &c. thrown over in tJie 
filops, they follow us often whole days, and in large numbers. 
Notwithstanduig the scorn with which the proposal was received, 
1 had the petrel broiled, together with slices liom tlie breast of 
the booby. They were both jironounced excellent, by all who 
could be prevailed upon to taste them. As the plumage of both 
birds was in fine order, I presei-ved and stuffed then- skins. 

Nov. 11. Saw, this evening, tlie Magellan clouds. In- 
stead of being always at the water's edge, as Col. Symmes* 
affu-med, they stand high in the heavens,' and will be almost ver- 
tical as we pass round the Cape. We can pei'ceive but two, both 
bright ; but it is said there is a third one, daik. Those we see 
are oval, about the size of a cart-wheel to the eye, and exactly 
resembling the milky way. It is sujjposed by astronomers that 
they consist of just such a collection of stars as form that beauti- 
ful pathway across the heavens. The present residence of the 
yoimger Herschel, at the Cape of Good Hope, Mith his stu- 
pendous instruments, will doubtless furnish the learned world 
with some new and important facts in regard to these famous 
" clouds." 

The clearness of the atmosphere in this region is very striking. 
So pure is the air, that the stars shine with a glory not inferior to 
that of our most resplendent northern nights. Li one respect, 
they transcend even those, viz. the visibility of stars down almost 
to tlie very horizon. Shooting stars are numerous, and of great 
apparent size. Delicious weather, smooth water, and fine winds, 
make up the monotonous but attractive sceneiy of our evenings. 

" Such beauty, varying in the light 

Of gorgeous nature, cannot be portrayed 
V By words, nor by the pencil's silent skill; 
But is the property of tliose alone 
Who have beheld it, noted it with care, 
And in their minds recorded it with love." 

The comet has become more glorious, and its train is visible 
to the naked eye, stretching upward, almost a fourth j)nrt to the 
zenith. Seen through the ship's glass, it is half the size of the 
moon, and of a dazzling brightness, resembling Jupiter. It ap- 
pears low in the west, and sets about half past nine. 

Thursday, 12. Had the great pleasure, to-day, of sending letters 
directly to Boston, by the ship Susan, Capt. Jennings, from Rio 

* Author of the theory that the interior of the earth is hollow and iniiabitcd 



TRADE- WINDS ANOTHER ILLNESS. 23 

Janeiro. Judging by appearances tliat she was an American 
vessel, and bound for the United States, we checked our way to 
meet lier, and, linduig our hopes confii'med, asked tlie captain to 
heave to, and take letters, which he readily did. I liad seven 
nearly finished, and, among us all, made up more than sixty, 
which will gladden our friends, by assuring them that we are, so 
fai*, all well. Such ojjportunities are very rare at sea, and we 
feel grateful that our triends will thus be able to hear from us 
seven or eight months before they could Irom Calcutta. 

We are now m south latitude 15° 34', and west longitude 32° 
20', going seven miles (oi knots) an hour, day and night, fanned^ 
and forwarded by the invaluable trade-wind. There are, on the 
globe, two trade-winds ; one north of the equator, forever blow- 
ing from the north-east, and the other south of the ecjuator, and 
blowing always from the south-east. They extend about 28 de- 
grees each side of the equator, but advance and recede several 
degrees, according as the sun is north or south of the line. They 
blow with sufficient force to propel a vessel generally about seven 
miles an hour, and with such uniformity that, for many days, a 
ship scarcely alters a rope ; and are attended with delightful 
weather. They extend quite round the globe, except where the 
action of the sun on masses of land, or high islands, obstructs it 
for a limited sjjace. They are generally attributed to the rare- 
faction of the air, under the path of the sun, causing an influx 
from toward the poles. The wind thus created is drawn west- 
ward by the combined action of the sun in its path, and the rapid 
rotatoi-y motion of the earth. The north-east trade-wind stops 
short of i-eaching the equator, by several degrees, and is less reg- 
ular and strong, which is attributed to the great contraction of 
the Atlantic between Africa and Brazil, and to the greater quan- 
tity of land in the northern hemisphere, producing an amount 
of rai'efaction which allows less cold air for the supply of the 
tropics. At the West Indies, the large scope of ocean to the 
eastward gives uniformity to the trade-wind ; and hence the term 
" Windward Islands." Whatever may be the second causes of 
these great and perpetual phenomena, we certainly owe the 
great First Cause unspealtable thanks ; for they impart most im- 
portant benefits. 

November 19. Another severe shaking of my clay house has 
been reminding me again of the Master's warning, " Behold, / 
come as a thief." An attack of colic, on Monday, reduced me in a 
few hours to extremity. It was more violent than most previous 
attacks, but yielded sooner. Precious days, however, have these 



24 VOYAGE OUT. 

been. Wliat fresh and endeai'mg benefits do sicknesses impart! 
No height of worldly honor, or richness of bodily enjoyment, 
would induce me to part with the salutary lessons derived liom 
even one of these attacks. 

We have now, probably, bid farewell, for the-present, to warm 
weather, being in latitude 30°. Thick clothes ai-e in requisition, 
and the thermometer ranges from 60° to G5°. It will probably 
remain cold with us for five or six weeks, perhaps more. We 
had the pleasure to-day, for the first time, of seeing Cape pigeons, 
and that king of aquatic bu-ds, the albatross, [diomedea erulans.) 
These, with gannets, molly mawks, boobies, pintadoes, and other 
birds for which those on boaid have no name, are almost con- 
stantly round the ship. 

Saturday, 21. Well enough to be on deck and enjoy the calm 
and delicious vernal sun. The present season in tliis latitude 
about corresponds with our May at home. At evening, after 
watching a gorgeous sunset, I was sittmg in the round-house to 
avoid the dew, when cries of admiration called me out ; and 
there was Venus, queen of all stars, gradually descending into 
ocean, unobscured by mist or cloud ! Nothing could be more 
beautiful. It gave a strong proof of the exceeding purity of 
these skies. 

Tliursday, 26. Feasted our eyes with the sight of '^land,'" 
which for sixty-five days we have not done. But imagination 
had to spread the banquet ; for few of us would have suspected 
that we saw land, had we not been told so. The dim, cloud-look- 
ing crags of Tristan d'Acunha showed then- questionable out- 
line amid fogs and rolluig mists, for about an hour, and then leil 
us to spend another sixty-five days, or more, before we again see 
aught but sky and water. This lonely spot is occupied by but a 
single family, of 15 or 20 persons. 

"Cap'e weather" is now upon us — foggy, damp, and cold, but 
with a noble westerly gale, driving us on magnificently. Our 
promenades on deck ai'e suspended ; but the cool weather ena- 
bles us to sit in our state-rooms, and the privilege of unresti'icted 
retirement makes amends for the absence of many others. 

Saturday, 28. Succeeded, this morning, in harpooning a por- 
poise, (delphinus phoccena,) and getting it on board. It measured 
seven feet in length, and more than three feet in girth ; of a pin-e 
vvliite under the belly, and rich lead color on the back; with large 
fins each side, near tlie head ; and the nose long and pointed, 
not nidike that of a hog. This latter feature is no doubt the 
reason why, in French, Italian, and German, the creature is called 



HARPOONING A PORPOISE ALBATllOSS. 25 

'^hog-JishJ^ The spout- hole is not on the crown of the head, as is 
said in the Encyc Anier., but quite forward of the brain, on the 
snout, and divided, by a septum of soUd bone, into two oval 
apertures, each capable of admitting a finger with ease. The 
harpoon entered its heart, so that it never moved after bein* 
brougiit on deck. Its bhibber (that is, the coat of fat lying under 
the skin) was stripped oft' for lamp-oil, and the carcass hung up 
for food. The kidneys exactly resembled a pint of small grapes 
enclosed in a thin, transparent pellicle. The rapitlity witli which 
these creatures swim is astonishing. Instead of tumbling and 
rolling lazily, as in smooth weather, they seem to gather spuita 
with a breeze, playing back and forward, across the bows, though 
the ship is going eight or ten miles an hour. Their move- 
ments indicate perfect ease and gayety; and not unfrequently 
they leap wholly out of water. 

We had scarcely done with the porpoise, when " a sail " was 
annomiced- We soon came near enough to perceive that she 
had a whale alongside, from which they were hoisthig the last 
sheets of blubber, and soon after cut adrift the carcass. It floated 
by us, at a little distance, covered with huge and ravenous birds 
pulling it to pieces, while a multitude of smaller ones swam 
around, picking u^i the scattered fragments. We soon spoke the 
ship, and found her to be the Samud Robertson, of New Bedford, 
out ninety days. The captaui politely offered to send a boat, if 
any of us wished to gratify our curiosity ; and several of the gen- 
tlemen gladly availed themselves of the opportunity. They fbimd 
her a " temperance ship," m fine order, and, after spendmg half an 
hour, and leaving some tracts, neAvspapers, &c., returned with a 
pi'esent of two fine albatrosses, measuring eleven feet across tlie 
wmgs. Unaccustomed to uijury fi-om man, they seemed no wise 
affrighted, and sat quietly on deck. Their long wings and short 
legs render it impossible for them to rise in fliglit from a flat, 
solid surface. When provoked, they snapped violently at the per- 
son, uttering a shrill, loud sound, not unlike the braying of a mule. 
They cannot stand up on their feet a minute, but contmue squat- 
ting, as on the water. Jn walking, their awkwardness is really 
ludicrous, while their enormous palmated foot comes down each 
time with a heavy slap. Though the largest of all aquatic birds, 
they fly with great ease, seldom movuig the wing ; noAV skimming 
gracefully along the surface of the water, adi'oitly conforming t<> 
its undulations, and now soarmg alofl like an eagle. They are 
continually seen in this region, hinidreds of miles from land, and 
at night repose at pleasure on the sm-face of the deep. They 
2 



26 VOYAGE OUT. 

prey upon flying fish, spawn, rnollusca?, dead cai'casses, &c., and 
are generally in good condition. 

Sunday, 29. For an entire week, we have gone six or seven 
miles an hour, day and night, on oui- exact course, enjoying mild 
weather, but with excessive dews. Tliis morning, at sunrise, the 
wind lulled to a tlnee-knot breeze, and has continued so all day, 
giving us a fine opportunity for worship. It is rejnarkable that, 
jis yet, eveiy Sabbatli but one has been calm, and pleasant enough 
for service on deck. 

An micoimnon scene has been before us all day. From day- 
light to dai'k we have been sailing though vast multitudes of the 
" Portuguese man-of-war," [Iwlothuriaphysalis,] though we have 
gone forty miles. They extended on eveiy side as fai* as the eye 
could reach, vaiying in size from that of the palm of the hand to 
that of a finger nail, and close enough to average, probably, one 
to every two cubic feet. We readily caught some in a basket 
They are elliptical in shape, about as thick as connnon paste- 
boai'd, with a sail, of the same thickness, extending diagonally 
from one end to the other. This position of their sail makes 
them always seem to be sailing " on a wind," and not dnectly 
before it. Beneath is a cavity, corresponding to the base of the 
sail. The interior of this is filled with small, short tubes, like 
mouths, and from the edge of it hang numerous long tentacles, 
like roots. The sail is white, and the body, or horizontal part, 
of a beautLfiU silvery lead color, inclining to a deep blue at the 
circumference, and taldng on an edge tmt of rose, after it has 
been kept some time in a glass. It has neither bones nor shell. 
The sailors consider it poisonous to the touch ; but I handled 
them (cautiously at fii'st, of course) without any ill effect. 

Our Bible-class continues exceedingly interesting, and gener- 
ally holds nearer two hours than one. It costs me, however, more 
effort than I anticipated. The questions asked by such a class 
are not of ready solution. All take a deep interest in it, and pre- 
pare themselves by study. We use no text-book. 

Tuesday, Dec. 1. Last evening, a sail was descried directly 
astern, which, liy three o'clock this morning, proved to be the Ti- 
gris, from London to Ceylon. They passed aliead ; but, the wind 
dying away, they, after breakfast, put off a boat, and the captain, 
(Stephens,) Col. McPherson, of the Ceylon regiment, a surgeon, 
and several yomig officers, came on board. Learning from them 
that the Rev. Mr. Hardy and wife, Wesleyan missionai'ies to Cey- 
lon, were on boai'd, Mr. Sutton and myself, with two or three of 
the brethren, went to him, and had a pleasant iuteniew. On 



ENCOUNTER RETVVEE.N A WHALE AND A THUESHER. 27 

retwnuig, we found our captain had rigged my arm-cliair, with 
nice taci<le, to the yard-arm, and was prepared to give tiie ladies 
an excursion. The two boats took them all, and they remained 
an hour with the ladies in the Tigris, durijig which a genteel re- 
past was sei-vcd to tliem. Our fust visitors remained with us, 
and took luncli. From Col. McPherson, who had seiTed m the 
Burman wai", I learned a few particulars resi)ectuig that people, 
and also the Shyans, for wliom I feel deeply uiterested. 

During the absence of the ladies, we observed an encoimter 
between a liumpbacked whale and a thrasher. The whale 
seemed greatly provoked, floundering, and blowing with violence, 
while the thrasher adroitly evaded the stroke of iiis flukes, some- 
times by leaping entuely out of the water. Presently after these 
combatants disappeared, four or five other whales were seen 
rolling and playing within one hundred yards of the ship, their 
backs rismgfive or six feet out of the water, while, ever and anon, 
as they descended, their broad tails rose high into view. Toward 
evening, a breeze sprung up, the Tigris passed on, and we j^aited 
company with the regi-et of severed neighbors. 

25. In latitude 37^ 30', longitude 70° east. Never had ship 
a fuier i-un than ours since we left tlie equator. We got up to 
latitude 35° on the 2.3d ult. being then in longitude 23° west. 
We have thus run ninety-three degrees of longitude in thirty- 
three days, and have passed the Cape without the semblance 
of a storm. It being nearly midsummer here, we have had 
mild, though damp Aveather, the thermometer never sinking 
below 50°. 

I had no conception that "doubling the Cape of Good Hope " 
meant passing near the coast of S. America to a higher latitude 
than the Cape, and then proceeding as near as possible in a 
straight line six thousand miles eastAvard, before we tm-n north- 
ward again ; in the mean time not coming withm one hundred 
and fifty or two himdred miles of the Cape. But such is the 
course rendered necessaiy by the trade-winds. Persons em- 
barking for India at any time except from about the first of 
October to the fu-st of Januaiy, ought to be j)rovided with 
flannels for five or six weeks' use. 

Ilavmg found tlie flesh of our porpoise exceedingly delicate, 
we have sought eveiy opportunity to harpoon another, but with- 
out success, till yesterday, when we welcomed one on deck. All 
agree that they never ate more delicious meat than this is, after 
it has been kept a day or two. It has no resemblance to fish, in 
appeai'ance or taste ; but, when cooked, is of a dark color, like 



^6 VOYAGE OUT. 

venison, and eats like the tenderest beef. The liver is very fine. 
This porpoise was instantly recognized as of a different species 
from tlie other, though of tlie kind usually caught in this region. 
It had a strong, thick, colter-shaped fin on the back. The light 
color of the belly was diffused over the back towards the tail. 
Tlie other, which the sailors called Cape Horn porpoise, had no 
fin on the back, and was of a imiform dark color the whole 
lengtli of the back. The captain assures us that the porpoises 
which tumble about in our bajs ai'e quite equal to these for food. 
It is a pity, in this case, that they are not brought to market. Be- 
uig easily taken, they would form at once a cheap and delicious 
food, beside the advantage of the oil. Perhaps they are not kept 
sufficiently long to become tender. 

January 1, 1836. Our fine run continues. For fifty-four days 
past, om- j)rogies3 lias averaged one hvmdred and seventy-two 
miles a day, which is seventy miles more than the average of the 
fii'st forty-five days. We now see no albatrosses, and few birds 
of any kind — no whales — no ships. The reflection that, as we 
walk the deck, we can turn no where and look towards home, 
that friends and countiymen are beneath oiu- feet, and that the 
thickness of the globe divides us, makes this new year's day 
memoi-able. Absence indeed it is, when one can get no finthcr 
from I is comitiy ! 

Monday, 4. According to previous agi'eement, we observed 
this as a day of fasting and prayer, as is done by so many asso- 
ciations at home, havuig reference to our own spiritual improve- 
ment, and the advancement of true religion over all the earth. 
Had a prayer-meeting from ten to half past eleven, A. M. At 
one, P. M., I preached in the after-cabm from Habakkuk iii. 2 — 
" O Lord, revive thy work;" and in the evening we observed the 
usual concert of prayer. I trust the season was not wholly lost 
to us. But, alas ! how strongly are we reminded, at the close of 
a day so designated, that " our righteousnesses are as filthy rags " ! 
J\Iy throat suffered less than it has hitherto from similar exer- 
tions, for which I am tiuly thankful. We had a slight breakltist 
and supper, but dispensed with dinner. 

Wednesday, G. Were visited yesterday by an enormous shark. 
Wc were gohig but at the rate of two knots (miles) an hour, and 
some men were at work over the side, whose feet occasionally 
dipped in the water; and it is possible this may have drawn 
him. He was about thirty feet long, and four or five broad, the 
head flat, and nearly squai'e across tlie snout. After he had ac- 
companied us some time, within eight or ten feet of the ship, the 



MEETING FOR SEAMEN. 



29 



captain had tlie harpoon thl•o^vIl into him. It entered near hi^s 
head, and passed deeply. For some moments, he seemed imcon- 
scious of tlie wound, and then moved off abeam. Li vain the 
sailors held on to the rope ; it passed irresistibly through their 
hands, till it came to the end where it w^as made fast, and then, 
tliough an uich in diameter, broke hke a thread. Tlie sailors call 
this the bone-shark. It is, I am pretty conlident, the basking shark 
{selache maxima) of the books, not unfrequently seen on the Amer- 
ican coast, and which greatly resembles a huge catfish. Its flesh 
is said to be good eating, and a valuable amount of oil may be 
got from it. Aj-ound bun, as usual, were j)ilot-fish, [scomber duc- 
tor,) sliaped like a perch or small fat hening, and gii'dled beauti- 
fully with alternate rings of blue and white. 

Monday, 11. Preached in my turn last evening, in the small 
cabin, and suffered still less than before. For several Sabbaths, 
we have had a separate meeting for the seamen, at 4 o'clock, held 
in the forecastle, or on the forward deck. They all attend, and give 
respectful attention. I sometimes converse with them mdividu- 
ally at sunset. They admit the importance of personal piety, 
and one or two are serious ; but then* great objection to giving 
themselves up immediately to God is, that they cannot maintain a 
devotional life, situated as they are at sea. Alas ! there are al- 
ways some to scoff at a religious messmate ; and a sailor can bear 
any thing better than scorn. Sad are the responsibility and danger 
of the " one sinner [that] destroijeth much good" 

Friday, 15. Are at length north of the line again, and have 
been for a day or two within 24 hours' sail of Sumatra. Sixteen 
thousand miles of our voyage are now accomplished, in safetj^ 
•t has been oppressively hot for a fortnight, Avith daily showers 
of rain. Some of the gentlemen have refreshed themselves by 
swimming at the side of the vessel, when it was calm ; and the 
captain has " rigged up " a nice bath, on deck, for the ladies, of 
which they gladly avail themselves. 

It is pleasing to have ocular evidence, in rock-weed, tropic 
birds, &c., of our approach to Aurea Chersonensis and Jlrgentea 
Jles;io, as the ancients called Burmah and Siam. They kncAV 
little more of these regions, than that they existed; and few mod- 
erns know much more. But the eyes of Christians are now 
turned on these lands with strong benevolence, and the world will 
Icnow, not only their riches in gold and silver, in ivory and spices, 
but the condition of their teeming population, and the character 
and tendencies of their religion. The missionary shall feel at 
home on lands which white men knew not, and the knowledge 



30 VOYAGE OUT. 

of God supplant their gloomy superstitions. Soon we sliall say, 
" Thy light is come ! " 

January 18, 1836. Sailing to-day only 80 miles from the Nico- 
bar Islands, and embayed among pagan countries, makes one feel 
tdready amid the heathen. On these pleasant islands the gospel 
was long and faithfully dispensed, and deliberately and finally 
rejected. Mingled emotions of i)ity lor the deluded people, and 
adinu-ation of true missionary zeal, force themselves u]Jon lis, 
when we remember the struggles and martjTdom of the faithful 
Moravians on these coasts. Eighty years ago, they began by 
sending six men to convert and civilize the peojjle. Others came, 
as disease made breaches in their number. Tliiily years long 
did these holy men exert themselves amid both hai'dships and 
discouragement. Obliged, at night, m then- preaching tours, to 
sleep in trees, or buiy themselves m the sand of the shore, to 
avoid venomous insects; often escaping, as by mu-acle, from alli- 
gators, sei-jjents, and wild beasts ; feeding on wretched shell-llsh ; 
lodged in poor huts ; and laboring with their own hands for a 
subsistence, — they fainted not, nor ceased their toil. But no ear 
gave heed to their heavenly message ; no heathen began to adore 
the true God ; no idol was cast to the moles and the bats. Thir- 
teen of the bretln^en, with ruuied healtli, returned to Tranqi'ebar, 
and died, while eleven more found graves in tbeii" little ceinete-y. 
The society, at length, ordered the only sni-viving missiouai-y to 
abandon the undertaking, and bear his rejected tidings to another 
people. The lonely laborer, therefore, after kneeling on the 
green sod, where lay his loved companions and predecessors, and 
offering one more fenent prayer for the pitied islanders, left the 
comitiy, [in 1787 ;] and " the voice of free grace " has been heard 
among them no more. — O ye Nicobai'ians ! how have ye put 
from you the teachings of Jesus, and " counted youi'selves un- 
worthy of eternal life"! But the light now kindling on Biumah's 
shores sliall strike your silent mountains, and wake from your 
dark valleys the exultations of the saved. 

Tuesday, 26. Becalmed. Juggernaut's temjile about 90 miles 
distant. — It is difficult to abstain from gazing over the side, per- 
jietualiy, at the countless numbers and variety of aquatic crea- 
tures, which, fai- and near, sport, themselves on the smooth, warm 
siii-face of the sea. Through the glass we discern numerous 
turtles, pufRng-pigs, &c., while nearer at hand are sliai'ks, dog- 
fish, sun-fisli, toad-fish, cuttle-fish, porcupine-fish, snakes, sea-lice, 
spiders, &e. ; and on eveiy fragment of bai7iboo, or wood, or co- 
coa-nut husk, which floats along, are vaiioiis shcU-fish, suckers. 



KIKST SIGHT OF IDOLATERS. 31 

and worms. Diliereiit parties take the boat from time to time, 
and row aboiit, getting fine turtles, and picking up a great variety 
of creatures, which we should be glad to preserve, if we had 
the conveniences. I began my portfolio by making drawings 
of several of the fishes. We got six or eight crabs, about 
as large as a half dollar ; exceedingly beautiful and various iu 
their colors. In a piece of porous wood, not exceeding four 
inches square, we found ])erhaps fifty different insects, all, of 
course, new and curious to us. What an opulence of divine 
l)0wer and skill is seen in this endless vai-iety of animated be- 
ings! — all perfect iu their kind — all happy in then- way — all 
llilfiJling some object for whicli they were made. " O that men 
would praise the Lord for his goodness and his wondei'ful 
works ! " 

Monday, Feb. 1, ISSfi. At om* concert of prayer this evening, 
it was an affecting consideration that, on all this coast, from Cut- 
tack to Calcutta, not a solitaiy evangelist holds forth the word of 
life ! Commercial zeal maintains, at great expense, buoys, light- 
houses, telegraphs, and pilots, lest property should be lost on 
these numerous shoals ; but Christian zeal has not lit up the torch 
of truth, to save the thousands of these people from the loss of 
the soul! How many other districts of equal magnitude are 
similai-ly destitute ! O Zion ! thy wealth cankers. Thy worldli- 
ness, m ex^ienditure, in fashions, and in pursuits, oppresses thy 
graces, destroys thy power, and leaves whole nations unblest 
with thy light ! O for some such devotedness as men of earth 
e.vliibit in the ways of pleasure and of gain ! O that tlie millions 
of money annually wasted by professed Christians, in the United 
States, were expended, not in injury to the church, but in ele- 
vating from barbarism, misery, and death, the untaught millions 
of heathen ! 

3. Yesterday, about 8 o'clock, A. M., we got a pilot, and are 
now slowly ascending the Iloogly, hoping to find at Kedgeree, 
al)()Ut GO miles up, some conveyance for our friends who aie 
going to Calcutta. The boat which brought on board the pilot 
was manned with nine lascars. My heart incited at this first 
sight of poor idolaters. Compassion and awe have been seldom 
more strongly excited. Looking round on the others, who stood 
looking over the ship's side, I found my eyes were not the only 
fountiuns of tears. To-day we liave seen many more natives, Avlio 
came off" to us in their boats. Most of them have a veiy small 
white cotton cloth wrapjied round their loins ; some have it long 
enough to cover the shoulders also when they choose to loose it 



32 VOYAGE OUT. 

for that purpose ; and a few weai* turbans of the same material : 
none have any defence to the feet. Then- complexion is not 
much diflerent from that of colored people in our Nortliern States, 
who have not generally the jet color of Africans. Some of the 
younger ones were not so dark, and had more of the red tint of the 
American aborigines. Their stature is small, limbs well propor- 
tioned, countenance intelligent, nose aciuiline, teeth veiy white, 
hair black, and inclined to curl. A fishing-boat attached itself to 
our stern as we lay at anchor, and remained during the ebb tide, 
in company with another, which had come to offer aid in working 
tlie ship. It was interesting to obsei-ve the nicety with which 
they prepared then* rice, and the enormous quantity they de- 
voured. I should judge that each man ate two quarts ; but it was 
boiled dry, and lay loose. It is to be considered, however, that 
they eat little else. They ate with the fingers, or rather the 
hand, pressing together as much as they could well grasp, and 
cramming as much of it as they could into the mouth, letting the 
remainder fall back into the dish again ; then picking up a small 
morsel of fish. It was an ocular proof of the propriety of the East- 
ern custom of " wasliing before meat " — a custom which a mere 
American reader might regai'd as founded m superstition. Afler 
dinner, and smoking, they lay down to sleep. Untying the cloth 
round their loins, they made it answer as a sheet, and the bare 
deck formed their couch. Though we find it warm in the middle 
of the day, (thermometer, in the shade, 79°,) they all complained 
of the cold, and laid themselves in the full blaze of the sun. 

The boats ai-e similar to ours, but pointed at each end, heavier, 
and decked over, so that the rowers sit flat on the floor, or on a 
very low stool, having the oar fastened at the top of two small 
sticks, about two feet long, set up like the letter A. Most of the 
oars were bamboo rods, wth a flat piece, about 18 inches long, 
at the end. They are short, and the rowers sit in pairs, side by 
side, while the boat is steered by an oar at the stern. 

5. Went ashore, and, afler visiting the telegraph officer at this 
station, strolled through the bazar. — We found rice, grain, sugar, 
milk, eggs, fowls, cocoa-nut and mustard-seed oil, mats, oranges, 
guavas, bananas, plantains, shattucks, (called here pomelos,) pine- 
apples, yams, sweet potatoes, onions, cabbages, carrots, Irish 
potatoes, lettuce, &c. &c., but no butcher's meat. Generally, the 
prices were much cheaper than with us ; but siich of the articles 
as do not j)ro])erly belong to a tropical climate were of very poor 
(juality. Mustard is cultivated in lai-ge fields, simply for the 
oil, which is prized not only for burning, but for cookeiy, and 



ANDAMAN ISLANDS. '63 

esj)ecially for anointing oil, in wliich last mode the consunijjtion 
is veiy great. 

6. Having parted with Mr. Sutton and his company, we 
weighed anchor about 2 o'clock, and di-opped down the liver, to 
resume our voyage to Burmah. The navigation here is so uitri- 
cate as seldom to be attem])ted at night, especially dm-ing this 
month, when fogs occur every night. Fi'om midnight till this 
morning at eight o'clock, the fog and dew sent down from the rig- 
ging a continual dropping, like a smart sliower. A good rain of 
an horn's duration would not have wet the ground more deeply. 
What a merciful provision in a country where no rain occurs tor 
so long a period ! A fine wind and ardent sun cleai" the atmos- 
phere about eight o'clock. 

Feb. 12. Just now we have to the south of us the Andaman 
Islands. The ciiief of these is one hundred and foity miles long, 
and twenty-five wide, divided, however, in fact, uito three islands, 
by channels, which extend across the whole breadth. This ai'- 
chipelago was Icnown to Ptolemy, who calls it " InsulcB hoiKB 
fortuncE." He declares the inhabitants to be anthropophagi, which 
horrid fact is confii'med by late travellers, though it seems they 
eat human flesh only in revenge towai'ds enemies, or when im- 
pelled by famine, to which they are often exposed. They are 
genuine negroes, and uncommonly repulsive in appeai'ance, hav- 
ing limbs disproportionally slender, protuberant bellies, high, 
round shoulders, very large heads, Avoolly hair, thick lips, and 
sooty skin. The average height of the men is about five feet. 
No two races of men are more distinct than this people and the 
nations aromid them. How they came here is a problem not 
solved. The general conjectme is, that a Portuguese slaver from 
Mozambique was some time wrecked here, and thus peopled the 
island. But we have the account of two Mahometan travellers, 
who journeyed eastward in the ninth centuiy, six hunch-ed j'cars 
before Portuguese ships found their way to the Lidian Ocean. 
Their description of these islanders is quite correct. They say, 
" The complexion of the people is black, then- hair frizzled, their 
countenance frightful, and their feet veiy large. They go quite 
naked, and eat human flesh." Perhaps no people on earth stand 
lower in the scale of humanity. Going utterly naked, and there- 
fore exposed to the annoyance of various insects, they are m 
the habit of daubing themselves Irom head to foot with mud, 
which, hardening, forms a complete defence, but gives them a 
hideous appearance. Their habitations are scarcely superior to 
the lair of the monkey. Four slender jjoles stuck into the ground, 



34 VOYAGE OUT. 

tied together at the toj), and covered with leaves, form the wliole 
structure. A few leaves scraped into a corner make the bed. 
Their only manufactures are some poor bows and arrows, hard- 
ened at the end by fire, or pomted with bone ; and some simple 
fishing-tackle. Addicted to war (!), and kept down by scanty food, 
their niunbers amount to less than three thousand souls. Who 
will go to these ? Who will carry the torch of truth into that 
thick gloom ? Lord, send by whom thou wilt send ! 

14. Passed not fai- from the Prepai'is and Narcondam 
Islands. The former is accessible only on the eastern side. It 
is about seven miles long, entirely covered with a dense forest, 
and uninhabited. Monkeys and squirrels, said to be the only 
quadi-ujjeds, are exceedingly niunerous. Narcondam is regarded 
as of volcanic origin, and has on its summit the ajiparent crater 
of an exliausted volcano. Its form is conical, and, though the 
island is very small, its height is computed at two thousand five 
hundi-ed feet It is visible in very clem* weather seventy miles. 

17. Since leavuig Kedgeree, we have held meetings eveiy 
evening with the men in the forecastle, and are rejoiced to find 
eight out of the ten avowing themselves subjects of deep convic- 
tion, and declaring their full purpose of heart to follow Christ in 
all his appointed ways. We usually preach a familiar discourse, 
and then converse with them personally. Their gradual progress 
has been very perceptible, and so fai* very satisfactory. Several 
of them pray in our little meetings with great propriety. Three 
of them give good evidence of conversion, and desue baptism. 
They are much the most sensible men in the crew, and one has 
an excellent education. We lio[)e they will be found true to their 
new purpose, amid the temptations of the future, and redeemed 
at last by the grace of God. 



35 



CHAPTER IL 

Arrival at Amherst — First Sabbath at Maulmaiu — Coasting Voyage — 
Moung-ma-goung — Curiosity of the People — Walk over the Mountain — 
Tavoy — ; Mata. — Karens •, their Piety, Liberality, Temperance, Grati- 
tude J Letters from Young Converts ; Churches . 

Monday, Feb. 21, 183G. Cast anchor at Aiiiherst. Thanks to 
God for his gieat mercy in bringing us to our desu-ed liaven in 
safety and peace ! 

Having yesterday sent a line to ]Mr. Judson at Mauhnain, by a 
small boat, we had scarcely anchored before Mr. Osgood was ou 
board to welcome us. It was a joyous meeting, saddened, how- 
ever, by seeuig in brother Osgood's face evidence of in&m health. 
He brought covered boats to take us to Maulmain, and at ten 
o'clock, the tide bemg favorable, we set out, and arrived about 
day-break. Brother J. received us with exultation at the aid we 
brought, and we were soon comfoitably quartered — myself at 
brother J.'s, and the rest at the houses of brethren Osgood, 
Hancock, and Vmton. 

Our first Sabbath in this dai'k land was, of course, full of inter- 
est. Li the morning, we worshipped with the Burman congre- 
gation in the zayat. About seventy were present, nearly all Chris- 
tians. Seldom have I seen so attentive and devout an audience. 
They sat, of course, on the floor, where mats were spread for 
their accommodation, a large bamboo, about eighteen inches 
from the floor, serving as a rest to the back. In prayer, tlie 
Americans knelt, and the rest, without rising from the floor, leaned 
forward on their elbows, putting their palms together. At the 
close of the petition, all responded an audible ^7ne?i — a prac- 
tice truly apostolic, and strangely discontmued with us. Mr. J. 
preached with much apparent earnestness, and all listened with 
rapt attention. Several inquirers were present, some of whom 
applied for baptism. 

At night, attended at the chapel, where worship in English 
is regularly maintained. About one lumdred were present, chiefly 
soldiers. During the whole day, the gong resounded in different 



!56 BURMA H. 

pai'ts of the city, and in the evening several theatres were opened. 
We were mformed tliat one of the chiefs Avas giving a feast 
of seven days, on the occasion of his last child having his 
ears bored! 

After holding a meeting early on Monday morning, to decide 
on the destination of Mr. Davenport, I returned to the ship, to 
superintend the discharge of the cargo, and got back in the night 
on Tuesday. During the intei-vals of loading lighters, I went 
ashore, and sketched Mrs. Judson's grave, and the tree over it. 




The Grave of Mrs. JulIsoo. 

Tiie head and foot stones are m perfect order, and, with the 
little grave of " Maria," are enclosed in a light bamboo fence. 
Ilie mouth of the Sal wen and the broad expanse of ocean 
opens on the left. It is a holy spot, calculated indeed tq 
a'A'aken the emotions which the sweet poetess has ascribed 
to the traveller. 

Instead of attempting to describe my thoughts and feelings 
as I gazed upon the spot, I will give some stanzas written by 
Mrs. Sigourney, to whom I forwarded a copy of the pictiu'e, with 
tlie request that she would furnish a few lines. 



LINES ON THE DEATH OF MRS. ANN H. JUDSON 87 



THE IIOPIA-TREE, 

PLANTED OVER THE GRAVE OF MRS. ANN H. JUDSON. 

" Rest ! Rest ! The hopia-tree is green, 
And proudly waves its leafy screen 

Thy lowly bed above ; 
And by thy side, no more to weep, 
Thine infant shares the gentle sleep, 

Thy youngest bud of love. 

" How oft its feebly-wailing cry 
Detained unsealed thy watchful eye, 

And pained that parting hour. 
When pallid Death, with stealtiiy tread, 
Descried tliee on thy fever-bed, 

And proved his fatal power ! 

" Ah ! do I see, with faded charn.. 
Thy head reclining on thine arm. 

The " Teacher " far away ? — 
But now, thy mission-labors o'er, 
Rest, weary clay, to wake no more 

Till the great rising day." 

Thus spake the traveller, as he stayed 
His step within that sacred shade : 

A man of God was he, 
Who his Redeemer's glory sought, 
And paused to woo the holy thought 

Beneath that hopia-tree. 

The Sal wen's tide went rushing by, 
And Burmah's cloudless moon was high, 

With many a solemn star ; 
And while he mused, methought there stole 
An angel's wliisper o'er his soul, 

From that pure clime afar — 

Where swells no more the heathen sigh 
Nor 'neath the idol's stony eye 

Dark sacrifice is done, — 
And where no more, by prayers and tears 
And toils of agonizing years. 

The martyr's crown is won, 



JJg BL'KMAII. 

Then visions of the faith that blest 
The dying saint's rejoicing breast, 

And set the pagan free, 
Came tlironging on, serenely bright, 
And cheered tlie traveller's heart that night, 

Beneath the hopia-tree. 

Tuesday, 29. Waited with Mr, J. on Mr. Blundell, the com 
missioner of" the province, or governor, as he is l;ere commonly 
calleil, and on Mi'. Condamine, the second in oflice. They re- 
ceived us politely, and were able to answer me many important 
questions. Mr. Blmidell is regarded as a skilful and piaident 
govei-nor, and as eai'nestly desirous of the true prosperity of the 
country. He estimates the entire population of the provinces 
under his care at less than 300,000 souls; the provmces of 
Amherst, Tuvoy, Yeh, and Mergui, at less than 100,000 ; and Ai-- 
racan at about 200,000. 

Having concluded unanimously, at a full meeting of the 
brethren, to call a general convocation of all om- missionaries 
who could attend and return before the rains, it has become ne- 
cessary that my visit to Tavoyand Mergui should be made before 
such meeting, which, in view of all considerations, we appointed 
for the 30th of March. In order to be exempt from the delaj'S 
and disaj)pointments attendant on waiting for casual vessels, we 
chai'tered a small cutter. She is a tiny craft, of 40 or 50 tons, 
but lias a little cabin, which accommodates Mr. Abbott* and 
myself veiy well. 

The coast presents noble mountain scenery, but is entirely un- 
inhabitable, as is the case also with numerous islands, and which 
form almost a continuous chain, a few miles from shore. Dense 
forests cover the whole, jiresenting throughout the year a rich 
and varied verdure. To avoid three or i)erhaps fom* days' delay 
in going round Tavoy Point, and up the river, I was set ashore, 
with a few articles of innnediate necessity, at Moung-ma-goimg, a 
small Burman village, eight or ten miles' walk from I'avoy. It 
stands nearly a mile from the shore, with wide paths and good 
houses, beautifully shaded by noble trees, especially the bunjatha 
or jack, a sjjecies of the bread-fruit. While the necessaiy prep- 
arations were being made, 1 was conducted to the cool zayat, 
and was scarcely seated on its floor of split canes, when a wo- 
man brought a nice mat for me to lie on, another presented me 
with cool water, and the head man went and plucked for me a 

* A fellow-passenger from America, destined for the Karens. 



WALK OVER THE MOUNTAINS. 39 

half dozen of fine oranges. None sought or expected the least 
reward, but disapjieared, and left nie to my repose. A constant 
snccession of children, however, came to gaze at the foreigner, 
and some women, with babes on their hips, squatted at a little 
distance to gratify their curiosity; all, however, behaving with 
decorum and respect. In a Barman village, the zayat is the only 
tavern. It consists of a shed with a floor raised tluee or four feet 
from tlie gi'ound, and wide verandas to keej) off' the sun. The 
quality of the building varies with the wealth and generosity of 
the villagers. Some are truly splendid. As chairs and tables are 
out of the question, and as every traveller carries his own pro- 
vision, here is an ample hotel. The neighbors readily furnish 
water, and fruits seem free. A little fire, kindled near, cooks the 
rice ; an hour's slumber follows the unpretending meal, and all 
things are ready for a start. 

After some repose, the cooley (or porter) having adjusted the 
baggage at the ends of a pole, placed it on his shoulder, and 
walked on as guide. After passing some patches of pine-apple, 
and many noble fruit-trees of kinds unseen before, we entered the 
jungle, and began to wind our way over the mountains, which ex- 
tend along all this coast, and terminate at Tavoy Point. Though 
no rain has fallen since October, tlie foliage was fresh and intense. 
Flowers, great and small, beamed on us at eveiy step, and in some 
places filled the air with fragrance. Innumerable vines, creep- 
ing, climbing, and depending, seemed to intertwine the trees for 
mutual support. A great variety of parasites clung to the 
branches, sometimes with very large leaves, forming a complete 
and beautiful sheath to the entire trunk, and sometimes sending 
down long stems thirty or forty feet, waving to the breeze like 
small ropes. The lower portions of the mountain are of coarse, 
gray granite, the higher parts of some friable stone with which I 
was not acquainted ; the soil generally a stiflT, reddish clay. 
Near the summit of the mountain, we stopped at a shallow 
well, and, spreading a cloth on the ground, my servant pro- 
duced the result of his morning cooking on board the cutter, 
Avith fine cool water, drawn in a joint of bamboo. In the 
midst of our frugal meal, a couple of ponghees came up, followed 
by sei-vants bearing their baggage, and stopped under the shade 
of the same great tree, though on the opposite side. After 
dining, an ample plate-full was given to the cooley, while Jesse 
sat down and helped himself The poor cooley took the plate, 
and, squatting down at some distance from the elder priest, 
reached forward with great reverence, and presented the whole. 



40 BDRMAH. 

The old man and liis followers took a little, but with indifltjr- 
ence. Tlie bread he snielled, and examined, and tasted, but 
threw it away. His palate, 1 suppose, was not adjusted to such 
a novelty. 

As we sat waiting for the sun to decline, Jesse engaged the 
old man in a religious discussion. They both pleaded with great 
earnestness and much gesture, though sitting ten feet apart. I 
could but J )ray earnestly that the poor gray-headed idolater might 
be convinced of the truth, and my recently-converted man be 
able to set Jesus savingly before him. How I longed to be able 
to ])roclaini to them the great salvation ! The old man at length 
got out of patience, and moved off', followed by his company. 
The Lord grant that this people may be inclined to accept the 
heavenly boon which American Christians are offering them. 
About sunset, arrived at Tavoy, and was most kindly received by 
Mrs. Mason and Miss Gardner, the only missionaries now at 
the station. 

March 14. The ten days spent in this city have been much oc- 
cupied with the missionaries, in hearing statements, asking ques- 
tions, examining accomits, visiting schools, giving advice, and 
such other official duties as will recur at eveiy station. Such 
matters do not belong here, and my readers will not expect to 
find them in subsequent pages, though they form an important 
I)art of my duties. 

The town and suburbs of Tavoy contain, as I am informed by 
the acting governor, 1845 houses, with a population of 9,04.5 
soiUs, giving a fraction less than five to a house. Of these, about 
two hundred are Chinese men, generally married, and, of course, 
to Burman females. There are also 3Ialays, Malabars, Mussul- 
mans, &c. The streets are in good order, with much shade, and 
exliibit some stir of business. Good vessels are built here, and 
a regular trade maintamed with the chief places along the coast 
from Singapore to Canton. This secures bakers and many 
other convenient mechanics. 

TSvo days' journey from Tavoy, a considerable number of 
Karens, converted in different places, have been brought together, 
and formed into a Christian village ; the heads of every family 
being members of the church. These Christians now amount 
to about two hundred, and conduct themselves with exemplary 
rectitude. By the aid of the missionaries, they have obtained 
goats, bullocks, oil-mills, seeds, &c. ; and with these, and still 
more by the increased industry they have been taught to prac- 



TAVOY. 41 

tise, they have been enabled to cease their wanderings, and ac- 
quire many comforts to which their countiymen are strangers. 
Cleanliness, in which Karens are universally deficient, has been 
attained in no small degree. The men have been exhorted to 
raise plenty of cotton, and the women induced so to apply them- 
selves to spinning and weaving, as to furnish every one of their 
families with a change of raiment. They now wash tlieir gar- 
ments often, which before they scarcely ever did. Their ground, 
under their houses, which always used to be receptacles for filth 
and vermin, is all swept out clean every Saturday aflernoon, 
and the rubbish burnt. On Sunday, they come to public worship 
])erfectly clean, and, as their costume covers the person entirely, 
the sight would please the most fastidious American eye.* 

But it is the spiritual change visible at Mata,f which is most 
delightful. In this respect, they present a most attractive spec- 
tacle. Punctual in all public services, they fill a large zayat on 
the Sabbath, and manifest a decorum and devotion far superior 
to any thing ordinarily seen in America. Being a musical peo- 
l)le, and having a book of over a hundred hymns, composed by 
Mr. Mason, they, almost without exception, imite in the singing; 
and to my ear tlieir psalmody was correct and sweet. Af^er a 
prayer or a benediction, they all utter an audible " Amen^ re- 
main silent on their knees for the space of half a minute, and 
retire in perfect silence — a practice which would greatly im- 
prove our meetings. Mrs. Wade has been in the habit of hold- 
ing daily a prayer-meeting witli them at sunrise. Almost eveiy 
morning, before day-light, many gather at the zayat, and com- 
mence singing hymns. As soon as Mrs. Wade is seen issuing 
fi-om her door, at sunrise, they strike the gong, and presently the 
multitude come together. It is remarkable, that not one man or 
woman refuses to pray when called upon. On Sunday, a Sun- 
day school is held in the morning, at which all the children of 
proper age attend ; those that are not professors being formed 
into one company, and the others into another, superintended by 
the missionary and his wife alternately. Public worship and 
l)reaching aie held mornuig and evening. The aflernoon is 

* Friends who wish to make little presents to the Karen Christians, might 
send fine-tooth combs, brown soap, writing-paper, slates and pencils, quills, 
strong scissors, cotton cloth, thread, large needles, and penknives. Garments 
of any description are not wanted. 

t The name given their village, importing, literally, " Love." Sometimes 
Uiey call it Mata-m^-u, or City of Love. 



42 PIKTV Of TUE KARE>S. 

often employed in baptizing, or administering the communion ; 
and when this is not the case, prayer-meetings are held at the 
houses of the sick. So'ne fiTty or more members of the church 
Jive at difFceot c'istancos ''.i the country', fis far round as five or% 
S'X mi'es. These attend punctually, generally walkuig in on 
Salui'day afternoon, that they may lose no pait of the blessed 
day. 

It v,\]l of course be sujiposed that tliis people, so lately wild . 
and wandering, without l)ooks, without even the forms of reli- 
gion, and luniisiied as yet with no pjut of tlie word of God in 
their own tongue, and but a single manuscript copy of the Gos- 
pel of 3Iatthew, would be exceedingly ignorant of the claims of 
C'lu-istianity. They are indeed so. But it is exliilarating to see 
the readmess and cordialit)' with which they enter into llie per- 
formance of every duty, as soon as it is made known to them. 
Time would faU to describe all the instances which illustrate this 
remark ; but one or two may be named. Mrs. W. had on one 
occasion read to them that chapter in Matthew, which, describing 
the judgment, speaks of visiting Chi'ist (as represented in his dis- 
ciple) when sick or in prison, &c. They at once saw how re- 
gardless they had been of persons under sickness and sorrow ; 
and the very next day began to perform services to the sick, such 
as they had never thought of doing before. A poor widow, who 
had a leprous sort of disease, and a child about two years old, 
similarly affected, were \'isited by many of them the very next 
day. Tliey perfonned many rejfulsive offices for her and her 
child, brought water, cleaned the house, gave them rice and other 
articles, and so enriched and comforted the })oor creatiu-e, that she 
was bewldered with delight These attentions have contumed 
constantly. Another, who was bed-ridden with loathsome sores, 
was attended to in the same way. Since that time, no one is 
sufiered to want any thing which the rest enjoy. These kind- 
nesses are done with studied concealment, and can be learned 
only from the beneficiaries themselves. 

On being told of the persecution of 3Ioung San-lone and 
others at Rangoon, and how they had been chained, imprisoned, 
and excessively fined, they unexpectedly proposed subscribing 
toward paying his fine and releasing them from prison ; and out 
of their deep povertj- actually sent to Rangoon .50 rupees for this 
piu^iose. They have built, of their ov.n accord, a sufficient house 
for the residence of their missionarj' and his family, and a zayat. 
A greater evidence of Clu-istian generosity is seen in their inis- 
eiontu-y zeal. Those whose abilities, as assistants or school-mas- 



BUKJIAII. 43 

tcrs, waiTmit the missionaries in sanctioning it, are ever ready to 
part with their famihes, and go wearisome jonrneys of six montljs 
at a time, among distant villages, where they are utterly unknown, 
carrying on their backs tracts and food, sleeping on the way in 
trees, or on the ground, and enduruig many jirivations. Young 
men, whose services are very important to then* aged parents in 
clearing jungle and planting paddy, are readily spared, and go to 
various points, during the rainy season, teaching school, for which 
their salary is from two to three dollars a month — half what they 
could earn in other employ. About twenty school-masters and 
assistants are now thus employed. Mr. Mason has, in his excur- 
sions, baptized many converts who were brought to the knowl- 
edge of the truth by these assistants. His last journey among the 
retired villages between Tavoy and Rlergui lias been cheered by 
the reception of a number of such. 

The change in regard to temperance is not less remarkable. 
Unlike the Burmans, whose religion utterly forbids strong drink, 
and who scarcely ever use it, the Kai'ens use it universally, and 
generally to excess : everj'^ family make arrack for themselves, 
and from oldest to youngest partake. Drunkenness, with all its 
train of horrors, is rife among them, of course. But no sooner do 
any become serious iufpiirers, and consort with the disciples for 
further instruction, than they totally abandon the accursed thing. 
Jn Mata, thci'efore, not a (hop is made or drank. The cliildren 
of the veiy men who were sots aie growing up without having 
tasted or seen it The consequences to domestic peace and 
general welfare may be supposed. 

It will be recollected that they knew nothing of letters or 
books, till Mr. Wade reduced their language to writing, about 
three years ago. It is found that the system he has adoi)ted is 
eminently philosophical, and so easy for learners, that, in a few 
Aveeks, pupils who have never seen a letter learn to read 
with facility. 

As evidence at once of the benefit of Mrs. Wade's school, and 
the ])iety of the young converts, I will here give translations of 
some letters received from pupils on coming away from Tavoy. 
They are i)ai't of some twenty or more, and are a fair specimen. 

Letter from a female Scholar aged 15 years. 

" O Great Teacher ! 

" We put our trust in Jesus Christ, the eternal God. O great 
teacher, having heard that you have come to Tavoy, 1 have a great 
desire to see thy face. Therefore, O great teacher, when thou prayci^t 



44 LETTERS FROM YOUNG CONVERTS. 

to God, I beg thee to pray for me : when I pray, I will remember thee, 
O great teacher ! When 1 heard of thy arrival, I had a great desire to 
go to you. I said to my father, I will go; but he did not give permis- 
sion. My mind was cast down, and my tears fell much, O great 
teacher ! O pray for me, and I, when I pray, will much pray for thee. 
" A letter of affection from 

" Naw Poo Moo." 

From a Girl of 16, who had been to School nine months. 

« O Great Teacher I Sir, 

" Great is the grace and glory of Jesus Christ, the Son of the 
eternal God ! In former times, we heard not the word of God. But 
now, sir, we endeavor very much to keep his commands. I heard of 
your coming, and my mind was very happy. But I greatly desire to see 
you ; therefore do come to Mata, O great teacher I By hearing of your 
arrival, my tears fell much. Great sir, in order that I may keep the 
word of the J^ord, do pray for me, and that we may meet together 
amidst the joys of heaven : as for me, I trust I exert myself in prayer 
truly to God. 

" The affectionate letter of the disciple 

" Moo Yai." 

From, a Girl 10 years of age, 

" O Great Teacher ! 

" We put our trust in Jesus Christ, the Son of the eternal God. 
When you pray to God, pray for us ; and when we pray, we will pray for 
thee ! When 1 set out to return, by means of longing after thee, I cried 
much ; but by thinking on the grace of God, my mind was somewhat let 
down. Notwithstanding, during the whole day in which we were sep- 
arated from you, my longings did not cease. I thought that in this 
state we see each other but a small moment ; but when we arrive in 
heaven, we shall behold each other age upon age '. Then we cannot 
bo separated. O great teacher, I have a painful desire to see your coun- 
try. In order to go with 3'ou, I asked and obtained permission of rny 
mother. If you consent, please write me a kind letter immediately. 
But if you do not give permission, do not write. As for me, I have an 
earnest wish to see the country of the teachers and their wives. 

"Nau Moo Ki.ur." 

I miglit add many interesting facts *ind incidents, which filled 
me with pleasure and tliankliihiess on their beljalf. But I am 
not drawing a picture, for the sake of exhibiting glowing colors. 
Christian benevolence does not depend on success. If it did, the 
town of Mata, amid the solitude of the great mountains of Ta- 
voy, exhibits facts, which, if they were all the effects our whole 



BURMAH. 45 

missionaiy operations could boast, are sufficient to assure the 
most incredulous of the blessedness of oiu- enteri)nse. 

When endeavors to do good tail, it is a sweet reward to see 
those we meant to benefit grateful for our interference. And 
when good is really done, our pleasure is often neutralized by the 
pain of being ungratefully requited. Those who support our 
enterprise ought to know that this people testify aloud their con- 
tinual gratitude toward the Christians of this country for the 
knowledge of Christianity. They often compare their former 
degradation and misery Avith their present comforts and hopes. 
The pastor of the Mata church frequently speaks of these things 
in movuig terms — himself once a sot, and cruel. The missiona- 
ries cannot remain in the forest duruig the rains, so that this 
church is left six months in the year to itself. Their return is 
the occasion of a general rejoicing. When they are ready, many 
come to Tavoy to accompany them out, and to cairy portions of 
the articles to be ti'ansported ; and, where tlie way is sufficiently 
level, carry Mrs. Wade or Mrs. Mason in a litter. As the long file 
winds vmder the trees, along the narrow crag, or up the bed of 
a torrent, songs of Zion echo among the dark recesses, and nature 
rejoices to see her Maker glorified by men who for ages received 
his favors brutishly. Wai-ned of then* approach, the villagers 
come forth in troops, some hom-s' walk, and, after glad greetings, 
fall in behind, (for the path admits no double file,) and the length- 
ened train comes into the village with resoimding joy. 

Nor is JMata alone in its brightness, amid Burman shades. 
All along the jungle as far as Mergui to the south, and above 
Maulmain on the north, Karens are turning to God. The mis- 
sionaries properly discourage their always collecting into exclu- 
sively Clu'istian villages ; but in some cases it seems expedient 
and necessary. Among the Karens in the Tavoy provinces ai'e 
the following churches, beside Mata, which are also regular 
out-stations : — Toung Bi/ouk Galre, two and a half days south 
of Tavoy; 16 members, 25 inquirers: Pee-kah, four days south of 
the last-named church; 15 members, 43 inquirers: Kah-pah, 
three days south of Peekah, on a stream of the same name, navi- 
gable for boats ; 20 members, and within a day's walk, 34 in- 
tpiirers, most of whom havg asked for baptism: Tah-mlah, on 
the Tenasserim, three days from ftlergui ; 9 members. All diese 
liJive good places of worship, built by themselves; and each has 
a native pastor and a Christian school-master. There are also in 
the region six other schools, under Christian masters; and meas- 
ures arc in tram to form others. On an average, last year, ten 



4g BOOKS IN THE KaKEN LANGUAGE. 

learned to read in each school, some of whom are midfUe aged, 
and some quite old persons. The names of the pastors are not 
given here, because, being young men, they are changed every 
year, to give each an oj)portunity of being with the missionary 
half his time in the acquisition of Christian knowledge. 

I had the pleasm^e, in my voyage from hence down the coast, 
to be accompanied by Rev. Mr. Wade ; and, after four days, ar- 
rived at Mergui. The only European with whom we had inter- 
course there was Captain McLeod, the commissioner, or acting 
governor of the province, who received us to his house with the 
utmost cordiality. He communicated, with great frankness, many 
important facts, beside patiently answering a wearisome round 
of questions. There are but 35 British mliabitants in the place, 
including common soldiers. 

Mergui, or, as the natives call it. Bike, is beautifully situated at 
the mouth of the middle branch of the Tenasserim. Tliis noble 
river has three principal mouths, and several minor ones. The 
chief is that about foui- miles north, and receives, a few miles 
before it enters the ocean, the Byng River from the north. A fine 
island, opposite the tovyn, shelters it from the south-west mon- 
soon, and makes a safe though small harbor. 

The site of the city embraces a high hill, surmounted, as usual, 
with conspicuous pagodas. Next to the sea it rises abruptly ; and 
the houses of the English, which are erected on its summit, have 
a magnificent vicAV of the lower to\vn, the harbor, and the ocean. 
Most of the town cannot be seen in the picture. The rear of the 
hill slopes gradually, and is thickly built with native houses, on 
regulai- streets, sheltered from the sun by fuie fruit and other 
trees, almost as close as in a forest. Among these, the cocoa-nut, 
jack, and papaya, are the most frequent. At the time Captain 
Alexander Hamilton visited this city, it was in possession of 
Siam. He calls it Merjee, and says that " in former times there 
were many English there." The massacre of these, which was 
succeeded by the expulsion of those in Siam, occurred in 1G87. 
The chief exports are sapan wood, dennee, mats, ratans, sea-shig, 
tortoise-shell, and edible birds' nests. It was founded within a 
centmy by the Burmans, The ancient fortifications are still 
seen, though rapidly vanishing by the use of the bricks for other 
pin-poses. It is thus with the ramparts of all the towns in 
British Burmah, it being useless to retain extensive walls for a 
handful of troops, which, if occupied by hosts of natives, might 
help them m resistance. 



I 

i 



I 



I 

I 
I 



I 



MERGUI. 47 

The whole province of Mergui has a population of only 10,000 
of which above 6,000 are in this town. This great scantiness of 
peoj)le in one of the finest regions of the earth is chiefly owing to 
the intolerable government under which they have lived. About 
twenty years ago, it was unusually severe untler the viceroyship 
of Daing-woon, who was engaged in repelluig the Siamese. The 
atrocities of this monster were incredible, and drove forty or fifty 
thousand inhabitants from the province, besides the multitudes 
which he destroyed. In speaking to the Burmans of hell, even 
at this day, no circumstance is so ajipalling, as to assure them 
that Daing-woon will be there ! 

Here, as at Maulmain and Tavoy, I find numerous Chinamen 
married to Burman wives. They are at once the most valuable 
of the community for mechanical and mercantile conveniences, 
and the most pernicious for introducing and vending, wherever 
they go, arrack and opium. Without them, Europeans would 
sufter many discomforts, and through thein, the natives are 
greatly corrupted. Their superioiuty, in civilization and intelli- 
gence, to the various nations with whom they ai'e mtermixed in 
eveiy part of the East, is vei-y striking. 

Beside the usual quantity of ])agodas and kyoungs, there are 
four mosques, for the use of the Mussulman part of the popula- 
tion, and a Popish chapel. About four hundred of the inhaliit- 
ants, descendants of the early Portuguese, profess to be Clmstians. 
No converts, that my informants knew of, have joined the num- 
ber from among the Burmese, except some who miite in order to 
be married to those who belonged before. 

The present period of the year on this coast is the latter part 
of the dry season, and is marked by heavy squalls and showers. 
After these, there are about six weeks of clear weather, in- 
creasingly hot, after which the monsoon changes to the south- 
west, with violent squalls, and the rains set in for six montlis. 
In this return voyage to Maulmain, we experienced three of 
these storms, accompanied by much thunder, each severely 
testing the power of our anchor and vessel. The rocky coast 
furnishes no harbor except Mergui, Tavoy, and Amherst; and 
the high mountains which skirt the shore seem to di'aw together 
the utmost fury of the elements. 

One of these storms, experienced off Tavoy Point, will be 
memorable to all on board. As night drew on, the thunder, 
which had been growling on the mountains, grew more violent. 



48 BUKMAH. 

It was evident we should have a hard blow ; and, the tide turning 
against u», we were obliged to anchor m an exposed situation. 
After dark, the wind and lightnmg increased, and we got top- 
mast, gaff, &c. ujion deck, and, paying out much cable, waited 
the issue, uneasy. At length it blew a hurricane, and the light- 
ning kept up a glare bright as mid-day. It was but at intervals 
that it was dark, even for a moment, the light flickering con- 
stantly like a torch in the wind. We were in the veiy midst of 
the electric cloud, and the sharp, cracking thunder was dealening. 
Torrents of rain drenched the poor fellows on deck, (lor there 
was room for only two or three below,) and even in the cabin I 
had to gather my desk, &.c. under an umbrella ; for the neglected 
seams let in the water in twenty places. The little cutter pitched 
heavily at her anchor, and the loud roaring of alee surf told what 
we should experience if she parted her chaui. We \nt\ all in 
the hands of God, and were sitting in silence below, when a 
universal shout of terror brought us on deck — a ball of fire 
rested on the mast-head ! The consternation was luiiversal ; 
the captain and every one of the crew vociferating prayers, 
one to the Virgin Mary, another to Mahomet, &c., each in 
tlifferent language. They seemed frantic, and their voices rose 
on the tempest like the swelling wail of dying men. One 
declared it was the devil, and projjosed to ih-ive him aAvay by 
burning a certain mixture to make a horrid smell. They 
seemed comforted, however, to see us confident, and aware of 
its cause. The Christian Karens were tranquil, but awe-struck, 
and lay on their knees with their fiices to the deck, uttering 
])rayer each for himself, in a low but audible voice. It staid 
clinging to the mast amid all the rocking of the surges, till the 
lascars were nearly ready with their incantations, and then dis- 
appeared. It was an hour of great danger ; but the good hand 
of the Lord was upon us, and our frail bark rode out the storm, 
which abated in its violence before morning. 

Aside from the danger of na\igating this side of the bay of 
Bengal, (except from September to March, when the weather is 
exceedingly fine,) the inconveniences are not small, fi-om the bad 
construction and management of the vessels employed, and the 
annoying insects, &c. with which they abound. JMy little cutter 
is superior in all those respects to the Burman vessels, which I 
exj)ect generally to sail in from place to place. I can stand up 
in the cabin, while in those one can only sit, and that on the 
floor. I have a little quarter-deck, which they know nothing 
of And we have an iron anchor, while theirs is but a 



1 



COASTING VOYAGE. 49 

piece of wood, shaped like a fisii-hook. On the score of 
insects, too, I am informed tliat my condition is far better. In 
the latter point, however, I can by no means boast. Ilimdreds 
of ants, greai and small, black and red, move in endless files 
every where. Cocki"oaclies, flying and creeiiing, spotted, striped, 
and plain, walk over me and about me all night, but, tlu'ough 
mercy, they do not bite, and are, withal, quite shy when there is 
a light bui-ning, and so do not interrupt me when engaged. I 
now and then kill a forward fellow; but it is in vahi to think of 
abating the nuisance, for their " name is legion." I have nice 
sugar-cane laid in a corner for the ants, to keep them away ; but 
some of them are blood-thirsty, and bite me with all zeal. 1 
sometimes watch a bold fellow, as he runs over my hand ; and, 
when he finds a suitable spot, he raises himself perpendicular, 
and digs into me, kicking and strugghng, as if he would go 
through the skin. The spiders I kill v\ ithout mercy ; and busy 
enough they kept me, the fii-st day or two. Some of them have 
bodies as big as the joint of one's thumb, and occupy, as they 
stand, a space as large as the top of a ooffee-cup. Mice nibble 
my clothes at night. I have seen but two or three centipedes, 
and succeeded in killing them ; but there are, doubtless, more on 
board. But the musquitoes ! They are a torment day and night 
I am comforted with the assurance that strangers sufier most 
with them, and hope they will not " make a stranger of me " 
much longer. 

Among all these enemies, I have no auxiliaries but two or three 
nimble lizards. These I carefully befriend, and they consume as 
many of the vermin as they can. But what are these among so 
many? Beside their services in the butchering department, 
they interest me by their sudden and adroit movements on the 
walls and ceiling, and, withal, smg for me every night, as soon 
as tbe candle is out. 

The vai'iety of costume on board is striking. My man is 
from Madi"as, and wears generally nothing but a pair of calico 
drawers. The caj)tain has notliing but a piece of check wound 
tight round his hips, and drawn uj) between his thighs. The 
owner's agent, or supercargo, is a Mussulman, and wears, beside 
the waist-cloth, a muslin jacket with sleeves, tied in front, so as 
to discover the lefl breast. The su-cun-ny, or steersman, is a 
half-blood Portuguese, and wears drawers, and a short shirt or 
jacket, of red calico. One of the sailors has a regular short 
gown and petticoat, and the other, short drawers only. The 
Kai'ens wear nothing but a long shirf without sleeves, made of 
S 



50 BURMAH. 

substantial cotton cloth, ingeniously figured in the loom. Diver- 
sity in dress is still gi-eater in the towns, arising from the great 
mixture in the population. I have, however, already become so 
accustomed to it, tliat it ceases to excite attention. 

We have one ])erson on board, who excites my notice — a 
Christian disciple, who was a Karen Bhookoo, or prophet. lie 
was so struck with fear, when the "great teacher" sent for him 
into the cabin, to ask him some questions, that I got but little 
from him. He declaimed tliat, at fii'st, lie felt impelled, he knew 
not how, to predict the coming of a deliverer in six months, and 
sincerely believed it. But when the lapse of that time proved 
him wrong, he became wilful, and deliberately endeavored to 
impose on the people's credulity, to keep up his influence. 

Among my luxuries at Tavoy, were several visits to the grave- 
yard where, among others, is the tomb of Boardman. It was 
once a Boodhist grove ; and a dilapidated pagoda still remains 
within the enclosure. I made the sketch below, in the assur- 
ance that the friends of missions would love to see the resting- 
place of that great, good man, and where other beloved ones 
may yet lay their bones. 







51 



CHAPTER m. 

Return to Maulmain — Missionary Conference — Preaching — Balu Island — 
Karen Churches near Maulmain — Water Festival — Chinese Ceremony — 
The Mohurrum — River Excursion — Remarkable Caves — Karen Chris- 
tian Village — Church-meeting and Baptism — Population of Maulmain } 
Commerce, State of Boodhism, State of the Mission, English Influence. 

By the utmost diligence in overseeing the boatmen, and taking 
advantage of eveiy tide, and every breeze, I got back to Maul- 
main, in mercy, the morning of March 30, the very day on which 
our conference w^as to convene. We began our session accord- 
ingly, having present brethren Judson, Wade, Kincaid, Bennett, 
Hancock, Mason, Osgood, Vinton, Howard, Webb, Haswell, and 
Abbott. Every day, except the Sabbath, was diligently spent in 
the business, and, beside many important topics, which, though 
fully discussed, did not come to a formal vote, the followmg sub- 
jects were acted upon, beside minor ones : — The establishment 
of a seminaiy for native assistants ; its location, temporary 
preceptor, and course of studies and by-laws; new fields 
of labor proposed and described; native schools; polygamy 
among natives, and the management of such cases in regard to 
applicants for baptism ; reducing the size of the Burman charac- 
ter ; the plan of giving English names to native childi-en ; 
boarding-schools, and the best mode of their endowment. Con- 
siderable time was taken up in designating the new missionaries 
to their fields of labor. They seem to be as jewels, which each 
was anxious to seize. Every man felt keenly the claims of his 
station or neighborhood, and longed to see more laborers in 
what he deemed so promising a field. It was a noble strife of 
disinterested love, and so small was the reinforcement, compared 
with the admitted wants, on all sides, that it was difficult to 
decide where aid should first be sent. 

The next Sabbath, bemg the fii-st in April, I preached to the 
brethren and sisters by vote of the convocation. We met in the 
new and unfinished chapel, built for the native church. The 
building, though large for Burmah, is scarcely larger than many 
dining-rooms in India ; yet, as our little band arranged themselves 
in one corner, we seemed lost m the space. There was, however, 
moral power in the meeting ; and, when I reflected on the recent 
origin of the mission, its small beginnings, and its various dangers 



52 BURMAH. 

and hinderances, the company before me was a most refreshing 
sight. Here were twelve missionaries, beside Misses Gardner 
and Maconiber, and the missionaries' wives. Elsewhere in the 
mission were lour evangelists and a printer, not computing those 
in Siain. The text was, " Glority ye the Lord in the fii-es ; " and 
every heart seemed to say Amen, as sentence after sentence 
came forth. It is delightful preaching to greedy listeners; and 
long had most of these been deprived of the refreshment of 
fitting under a gospel sermon. Mr. Judson had not heard a 
sermon in English for fourteen years. 

As my eye rested on tliis loved little company, it was sweet to 
contemplate the venerable founder of the mission, sitting there 
to rejoice in the growth of the cause he had so assiduously and 
painfully sustained. His labors and sufferings for years; his 
mastei-y of the language ; his translation of the whole Word of 
God ; and his l)eing permitted now to be the pastor of a church 
containing over a hundred natives, — make him the most interest- 
ing missionai*y now alive. What a mercy that he yet lives to 
devote to this people his enlarged powers of doing good ! And 
we may hope he will very long be spared. His age is hut forty- 
seven ; his eye is not dim ; not a gray hair shows itself among 
his full auburn locks ; his moderate-sized person seems full of 
vigor ; he walks almost every evening a mile or two at a quick 
pace, lives with entu-e temperance and regularity, and enjoys, 
in general, steadfast health. May a gracious God continue to 
make him a blessing more and more. 

A day or two after the close of our conference, I accompanied 
Mr. Vinton to Balu Island, to counsel Avith liim on the final choice 
of a spot for a new station, and to visit some Karen villages, 
where as yet the gospel had not been dispensed. This island 
Ibrms the right bank of tlie Salwen River, from Maulmain nearly 
to Amherst. It is about seventeen miles long, and six or seven 
wide, settled chiefly by Karens. No portion of these Tenasse- 
rim provinces is more fertile, or more carefully and successfully 
cultivated. The population of course is dense, amounting to 
over 10,000. Along the whole island, from north to south, 
stretches a fine chain of moderately-elevated mountains. 

Having coasted the northern end of the island, and passed 
down its western side a few miles, we came to a creek, naviga- 
ble for roAV-boats, except at very low tide, and pulled up it to 
within about two miles of the proposed spot. From the mouth 
of the creek, the rice-fields engross each side as far as the eye 
can reach, covering an immense flat, but little above common 



BALU ISLfiJS'D KARENS. 53 

high-water mark. The walk from the boat to the spot pro])osed 
led through villages and rice-fields, till we began to ascend the 
mountain, and then presented enough of the beauties of an 
Oriental forest to keep a transatlantic eye mtent. Being the 
midst of the hot season, we of coiu'se were deprived of its full 
glories ; but many trees bore large and gorgeous flowers, beside 
sln-ubs and smaller plants, in great variety. American forests 
have more large ti-ees, and less undei'growth, but they have 
fewer leaves, and scarcely any flower-bearing trees. We were 
never a moment without a variety of blossoms m sight, and 
many fruits. 

Arrived at the spot, I found it near one of the lower sunmiits, 
overlookmg rice-fields, limited north and south only by the ex- 
tent of vision, and to the west commanding a wide view of 
ocean, distant five or six miles. From the summit of that ledge, 
a few yards eastward, a view scarcely less extensive is had of the 
Salwen River, Amlierst, and the ocean. 

It would seem that, though in the jimgle, this spot must be 
salubrious, from its complete exposiu-e to the sea breeze, and its 
great elevation ; but I fear it will prove too much out of the way 
from the main path. After breakfasting' on tlie spot, we de- 
scended to the village of the Karen chief| and spent the day 
making contracts for house materials, and testifying to them the 
grace of God. 

Though we lodged each night in the boat, we spent our time 
and ate among the people. The glance thus gained at native 
character was very gratifying. We saw no house where poverty 
seemed to dwell, (though we passed through four or five villages,) 
and no disorder m any place. Wherever we stopped to eat, we 
entered a house freely, and were immediately offered clean mats, 
and treated with the utmost hospitahty. Able and willing to 
supply om- wants, they sometimes expostulated with the servant, 
as he was cooking om* meals, that he had brought rice and 
fowls, instead of allowing them to furnish our table. This trait 
is prevalent among the Karens. Native assistants go from vil- 
lage to village among them, even where the gospel has never 
been heard, and take literally " neither scrip nor pui-se." They 
are bountifully supplied, even where their message meets only 
Avith opposition. Mr. Vmton, on one occasion, went several 
days' journey among Karen villages, without sei-vant or food. 
Every where they killed for him their best fowls, and spread 
before him rice, fruits, honey, and whatever they had, and gave 
him then- best place to sleep. 



5i BURMAH. 

Among that portion of the Karens lying contiguous to Maui- 
main, Mr. Vinton is the only laborer. There are in this province 
three churches — 1st, At Ko Chet-thing's village, on the Salvven 
River, two daj's above Maulmain ; thirty-seven members, five or 
six inquirers, Ko Chet-thing pastor: 2d, JVeivville, on the Da- 
gaing River, three days from Maulmain ; twenty-eight members, 
Ko Tau-pau pastor : 3d, Boo-tah, on the River Attaran ; thirty-foiu" 
members, Ko Taunah pastor. The station at Chummerah has 
been abolished by the removal of all the people. The place ia 
no longer inhabited. This part of the mission to the Karens 
has five valuable native assistants, including the three pastors 
just named, besides several young members of the church, in 
traming, who give evidence of being called to the ministiy. 
One hundred and twenty-tlii-ee persons have been baptized 
in all. 

When the amount of labor which has been bestowed on this 
portion of the Sgau Karens is considered, these results will 
appear exceedingly encouraging. Miss Cummings went to 
Chummerah to acquire the language, but died before she was 
able to speak it. Mr. Judson commenced this department of the 
mission, and resided among the people a few months. He, how- 
ever, retired thither chiefly to be undisturbed in translating, and 
devoted but a small pait of his time to direct missionary labor. 
Mr. and Mrs. Vinton came out in December, 1834 ; and their time, 
of course, has been almost wholly occui)ied in getting the lan- 
guage. They have already made a beginning in proclaiming 
the gospel, but much of their time will still have to be spent in 
study. They are now the only laborers among this people ; and 
six months of the year they must leave these infant churches, 
and retu'e from the jungle to their new station on Balu Island. 
The past diy season, they visited them each, and, passing up the 
Un-za-len River, twelve days Irom Maulmain, established several 
schools in important villages. They hope to be able to reside 
on this island during the I'auis, continuing the itinerant system 
in the dry season. 

The festivities which usher in the new year (commencing at 
the April new moon) have, for several daj^s past, kept the town 
excited. Before eveiy Burman house is erected a slight bamboo 
palisade, six or eight feet long, decorated very tastefully with 
young palm-trees, and pots of water, filled with various beauti- 
ful blossoms. The moistened streets send up an enlivening 
freshness, which, with the odors of the flowers, makes the street 
like a charming avenue in a gai'den. The absui'd yet amusing 



WATER FESTIVAL MOHDRRUM. 55 

ceremony to which these are preparations seems peculiar to 
JBurmans. It is a general war of water. Eveiy one is at liberty 
to wet his neighbor, but the compliment is chiefly paid by 
women to men, and men to women ; the children taking the 
principal share of the business into their hands. I have just 
been riding along the principal streets to witness the scene ; but 
no one offered to compliment me, or other foreigners, with a 
bowl of water. They know that foreigners, whose raiment 13 
not so easily changed, do not relish the sport; though sometimes, 
out of ill-timed complaisance, they submit to it. Almost uni- 
versally the people take it pleasantly; but occasionally I saw little 
fellows chased and overthrown in the dirt, who played off" on 
men. It certainly requires some command of temper, to show 
entire nonchalance wlien the children project a forcible stream 
from large bamboo syringes directly into the eyes and ears, 
creeping up slyly for the pui-pose, and running off* with exulta- 
tion. Not a native is to be seen with di-y clothes ; but " holiday 
clothes " on this occasion are their poorest. 

No one can assign any origin or signification to this custom. 
It seems as if it must have originated in some notions of purifi- 
cation from the sins of the old, and entering cleansed upon the 
new year ; but Boodhists have no idea of the remission of sins, 
in any way. Their only hope is to balance them with merit. 

Beside this harmless and meri-y custom, tlie religious celebra- 
tions of several classes of foreigners have kept the towTi in con- 
fusion for a fortnight past. The Chinese have just had their 
annual ceremonies in memory of deceased ancestors. Hearing, 
a few mornings since, an uncommon din of great gongs and 
other discordant instruments, I went to the veranda, and saw 
the procession pass to the cemeteiy. It was a meagre affair as 
to pomp, but doubtless quite as absurd as if it had been in their 
owii country. A succession of tables, borne, like biers, on men's 
shoulders, were spread with hogs, goats, and poultry, roasted 
whole, and various other eatables ; the horrid music followed, 
and a procession with streamers, terminated by a man or two 
with muskets, filling at short inten'^als. A priest, in proper cos- 
tume, walked on each side of the tables. 

Nothing can exceed the revolting exhibitions made by the 
Hindoo Mussulmans, who also are now holding their annual feast 
of Mohurrum. By nature almost black, they make themselves 
entirely so with paint ; many of them adding blotches and hid- 
eous figures, not only on their faces, but on every part of their body, 
and of every colored earth they can find. Some go fiuther, and 



56 BURMAH. 

put on masks of iuferiial ugliness, with horns, snouts, and iude- 
scrihable distortions. I never beheld them but with fi'esh horror. 
Moving about the streets in companies, they wi-ithe every muscle, 
some thi-owing their anns about as if ready to attack every one 
they meet, others slapping long, flat sticks together ; some beat- 
uig on drums, and pieces of brass, others filluig the air with yells 
and clamor. Man could not more brutify himself, even in the 
madness of intoxication. 

These tlu-ee ceremonies are, perhaps, pretty fair specimens of 
the habits of the three nations of idolatei's. Surely they furnish 
no ground for the boast of the mfidel, as to the pm-ity and noble- 
ness of human nature, evinced by pagans whose morals have 
not been contaminated by Europeans. 

Desu'ous of seeuig the people, as much as possible, in their 
own retired villages, where foreign influence is unknown, and of 
ascertaining the numbers, locality, &c. from personal observa- 
tion, I occupied the latter part of April in making two excursions 
into the interior ; one up the Dagaing, and the other up the Sal- 
wen River. In the fii'st, Mrs. Judson accompanied me, and in the 
last and longest, Mr. J. himself We slept generally in the 
boat, stopping at shady villages to cook our food, distribute 
tracts, &c. 

The whole region immediately above Maulmain is alluvial ; 
the rocks chiefly blue limestone of excellent quality. The coun- 
try is flat, fertile, and beautiful, but, though once populous, is 
now thinly inhabited. The scenery is rendered romantic and 
peculiar by small mountams, rising abruptly from the level fields 
to the height of four, five, and six hundred feet ; the base scarce- 
ly exceeding the size of the summit. In most parts, trees and 
shrubs cling to the sides ; but here and there the castellated and 
peii)endicular rocks project above the foliage, like the turrets 
of some huge ruined tower. On the summits of many of them, 
apparently inaccessible to human feet, Boodhist zeal has erected 
pagodas, whose white forms, conspicuous fai* and near, remind 
the traveller eveiy moment that he surveys a region covered 
with the shadows of spkitual death. Some of the smaller of 
these hills I ascended. My heart sickened as I stood beside the 
dumb gods of this deluded people, looking down and ai'ound on 
a fine country, half peopled by half-civilized tribes, enjoying but 
half the blessmgs of then- delicious climate, borne by whole 
generations to the chambers of death. They eat, and drink, and 
die. No inventions, no discoveries, no attainments, no enjoy- 
ments, ai"e theii's, but such as have descended to them age by age 



( 



REMARKABLE CAVES, 57 

mid nothing is left to prove they have been, but their decayed 
pagodas, misshapen gods, and imblessed graves. 

Most of these mountains contain caves, some of them veiy 
large, wliich ai)pear to liave been, from time immemorial, spe- 
cially devoted to religious purposes. The wealth and labor be- 
stovv^ed on these are of themselves sufficient to prove how great 
the population has been iu former ages. I visited, in these 
excursions, three of the most remarkable — one on the Dah 
Gyieng, and two on the Salwen. They differed only in extent, 
and in the apparent antiquity of the idols they contained. Huge 
stalactites descended almost to the floor in many places, while, in 
others, stalagmites of various magnitudes and fantastic shapes 
were formed upon the floor. In each, the bats occupied the lofly 
recesses of the ceiling, dwelling in deep and everlasting twilight 
In one they seemed innumerable. Their ordure covered the 
bottom, in some places, to the depth of many feet. Throwing up 
some fragments of idols, we disturbed their noon-tide slumbers, 
and the effect was prodigious. The flutter of their wings 
created a ti-embling or pulsation in the air, like that produced 
by the deepest base of a great organ. In the dusk of the even- 
ing, they issue from the cave in a thick column, which extends 
mibroken for miles. The natives all affirmed this to be the case 
every evening ; and Mr. Judson himself, when here with Major 
Crawfurd and others, saw the almost incredible fact. 

This cave has evidently been long deserted, except that a sin- 
gle large image at the entrance is kept in repair, before which 
were some recent offerings. I might, therefore, have easily 
obtauied images for my friends ; but, Mr. J. being afraid of an 
injurious influence on the native Christians who were with us, I 
abstauied, and afterward obtained a suj)ply by regular purchase. 

The last one we visited is on the Salwen, about fifteen or 
twenty miles above Maulmain. The entrance is at the bottom 
of a perpendicular but uneven face of the mountain, enclosed 
in a strong brick wall, which forms a large vestibule. The en- 
trance to this enclosm-e is by a path, winding along the foot of 
the mountain ; and nothing remarkable strikes the eye till one 
passes the gate, Avhere the attention is at once powerfully ar- 
rested. Not only is the space within the wall filled with ijuages 
of Gaudama of every size, but the whole face of the mountain, 
to the height of eighty or ninety feet, is covered with them. On 
every jutting crag stands some marble image, covered with gold, 
and spreading its uncouth proportions to the setting sun. Every 
recess is converted into shi-ines for others. The smooth surfaces 



58 BURMAH. 

are covered by small flat images in burnt clay, and set in stucco. 
Of these last, there are literally thousands. Li some places, they 
have fallen off, with the plaster in which they were set, and left 
spots of naked rock, against which bees have built their hives 
undistiubed. No where in the country have I seen such a dis- 
play of wealth, ingenuity, and industry. But imposing as is this 
spectacle, it sluinks to msignificance, compared to the scene which 
opens on entering the cavern itself. It is of vast size, chiefly iu 
one apartment, which needs no human art to render it sublime. 
The eye is confused, and the heart appalled, at the prodigious 
exhibition of infatuation and folly. Eveiy where, on the floor, 
over-head, on the jutting points, and on the stalactite festoons of 
the roof, are crowded together images of Gaudama — the offer- 
ings of successive ages. Some are perfectly gilded *, others m- 
crusted with calcareous matter ; some fallen, yet sound ; others 
mouldered; others just erected. Some of these are of stupen- 
dous size ; some not larger than one's finger; and some of all the 
intermediate sizes ; marble, stone, wood, brick, and clay. Some, 
even of marble, are so time-worn, though sheltered of course 
from changes of temjierature, that the face and fingers are ob- 
literated. Li some dark recesses, bats were heai"d, and seemed 
numerous, but could not be seen. Here and there are models 
of temples, kj'oungs, &c., some not larger than a half bushel, and 
some ten or fifteen feet square, absolutely filled with small idols, 
heaped promiscuously one ujion another. As we followed the 
paths which wound among the groups of figiu'es and models, 
every new aspect of the cave presented new multitudes of 
images. A ship of five hundi-ed tons could not carry away the 
half of them. 

Alas! where now are the successive generations whose 
hands wrought these wonders, and whose hearts confided in 
these deceits ? Where now are the millions who came hither to 
confess their sins to gods that cannot hear, and spread their vain 
oblations to him that cannot save ? The multitudes are gone, 
but the superstition remains. The people are left like the glean- 
ings of the vintage, but the sway of a senseless, ho{)eless system 
is undiminished. Fewer bow in these dark recesses, but no 
better altars witness holier devotions. May we not hope great 
things from the effect of a full toleration secured by the present 
rulers, and a full tide of missionary effbi-t set forward by 
American churches ? Thanks be to God tliat a Clu'istian 
nation rules these provinces, and a Christian community sends 
forth light and truth. Happy and auspicious is the mental davra 



KAREN VILLAGE. 59 

which now begins to break ! May Cluistians pray it into per- 
fect day. 

On the third day after leaving Mauhnain, we arrived at the 
newly-formed Christian village of which Ko Chet-thing, so well 
known in America, is pastor. It numbers as yet but thirteen 
houses, of which most of the adults are Karen disciples, drawn 
together to enjoy the means of mutual edification. Thirty-nine 
members constitute the church, and others are about to remove 
thither. Few of the great effects produced at JMata are yet visi- 
ble here; but religion has already placed this little band far 
above their wandering- brethren in many respects. At least, it 
has saved their souls ! Did it leave them in all their destitution 
of comfort and refinement, the deficiency, when compared to 
the gain, would be a grain of sand, — to the universe ! 

Mr. Vinton was absent on a preaching tour up the river. Mrs. 
Vinton received us with a hearty welcome, and the disciples 
were not behind in paying their cordial respects. My intended 
visit had been announced to them a fortnight ago, and a church- 
meeting and communion season appointed. Some Christians 
from other villages had arrived, and others kept emerging from 
the jungle all day. Several brought presents of eggs, plantains, 
honey, &c., and the occasion evidently possessed in theu" minds 
great mterest A number of serious inquirers and hopeful con- 
verts presented themselves. Several, who had for some months 
given evidence of a spiritual change, asked baptism, and the 
evening was spent in warm devotional exercises. We lodged in 
little rooms partitioned off* at the end of the chapel, and most of 
those who came from a distance lodged in the building. It was 
truly refi-eshing to hear them conversing, till a late hour, on the 
things of the kingdom. As one after another at length grew 
sleepy, he engaged in private prayer in a low tone of voice, and 
stretched himself for repose on the clean bamboo floor. The 
voice of praj'er was in this manner kept up till midnight. 

Next morning, we had a church-meeting, at which, among 
other business, three candidates for baptism were received. 
Some others were deferred for the present. The rude-looking 
assembly (lately so rude indeed, and so ignorant of eternal 
things) transacted their business with much order and great cor- 
rectness of judgment. Now, and several times before, I ad- 
dressed them officially, through Mr. Judson, examining into theii 
degi-ees of religious knowledge, and leaving them various in- 
junctions relating both to temporal and eternal things. In the 
afternoon, we met again, and, after religious exercises, walked in 



60 BURMA H. 

Itfocession to the water side, where, after singing and prayer, I 
baptized the candidates in the name of the Holy Three. The 
river was jieriectly serene, and the shore a clean sand. One of 
those lol'ty mountains which I have described rose in isolated 
majesty on the oj^posite siiore,* intercepting the rays of the set- 
ting sun. The water was jjerfectly clear, the aii* cool and fra- 
grant, the candidates calm and happy. All was good. May that 
lonely mountain often, often echo with the baptismal hymn and 
the voice of prayer. Next morning, we had the Lord's supper, 
and departed, amid the teai's and prayers of these lovely cliildien 
of the forest. 

How blessed and golden are these days to Bui-mah! Men love 
to mark the glorious sunrise. Painters copy it ; poets sing it ; 
all derive |)leasure and elevation as they gaze while it blazes up 
the heavens, turning to gorgeous purple every dull cloud, gilding 
the mountain tops, and chasing the mists from the valley. God 
seems present, and creation rejoices. But how much more glori- 
ous is the dawn 1 am iiermitted here to witness ! All the ro- 
mance which swells the bosom of the sentimentalist, gazing on 
early day, is coldness and trifling, compared to the emotions a 
Christian may cherish when he sees the gospel beginning to en- 
lighten a great nation. Surely we may hope such is the case 
here, and that the little light which has invaded this empire of 
darkness will issue in pei-fect day, I see a dim twilight ; others 
will rejoice in the rising sun, and others in the meridian day. O 
Jjord, come with thy great power. Lispire the churches to do 
all their duty, and prepare all people for thy truth. 

I have now seen much of the Karens, and gathered what 
information there is respecting them, which will be introduced, 
with notices of otlier tribes, in a subsequent chapter. 

The city of Maulmain was only a few years ago a jungle, 
though some intelligent natives affirm that it was once a large 
city, and the metropolis of a Shyan kingdom, then independent 
After tlie cession of these provinces to the English, it was select- 
ed as a military post, and a town sprang up, which has continu- 
ally increased, and nujiibers now 18,000 souls. The rest of 
the province contains about 30,000 more, of whom some thou- 
sand are Karens and Toungthoos. The city consists principally 
of one street, which extends along the x'iver about two and a 
half miles. The river is about a mile wide, with a tide of 
twenty feet pei|)endicular rise. In the reai-, distant about a 
quai-ter of a mile, is a long, narrow hill, running parallel to 

* Coiitaiuiiig also a cavern filled with idols;, which, however, I had nol time 
to visit. 




tiBiiiiliiliiiiiiiiita^ 



MAULMAIN. 61 

the river, presenting along its summit a string of pagodas 
mostly fallen to ruin. From a fine road, made here hy Sir A. 
Campbell, the whole city, with the river, shipping, and high 
liills on the opposite island of Balu, are in full view. The 
accompanying picture is taken from the summit of the hill. The 
distance is too great to allow of distinctness in sketching the town. 
The lai-ge house near the centre is the residence of the gov- 
ernor. The mission premises are close to the river, nearly over 
the heads of the two soldiers, who sit on the summit of the hill, 
near the point from whence the view was taken. On the ex- 
treme right is the city of Martaban, with its conspicuous pagoda. 
The location of the city has been found exceedingly salubrious, 
and gentlemen m the Company's service are glad to resort 
hither for health, from the opposite shore of the Bay of Bengal. 
The settlement is too recent to be adorned with noble shade- 
trees, like Tavoy and Mergui, but is well laid out, and the Bur- 
mans, alwaj's tasteful in such matters, have planted them to a 
sufficient extent. Over the water-courses are handsome bridges 
of substantial masonry ; and fine roads are made, and being 
made, in various directions. 

Being the metropolis of British Burmali, the commissioner or 
acting governor resides here. The garrison consists of a regi- 
ment of the line, a detachment of artillery, and some coznpanies 
of sepoys. The officers of this force, and the gentlemen connect- 
ed with the civil service, make a considerable circle of English 
society, which, with soldiers, traders, &c., and their families, in- 
sure all the conveniences of an abundant market, various me- 
chanics, and well-supplied shops. In the market may always be 
had fresh beef, pork, goat, venison, and ])oultry, butter, eggs, 
milk, &c., with great plenty of the finest fish, fruits, and vegeta- 
bles. In passing through it one day, I counted thirty-two difi'er- 
ent kinds of fruit, besides vegetables. The price of articles, with 
some exceptions, is cheaper than in our cities, — fowls, two ru- 
pees a dozen ; rice, half a rupee a bushel. The best of balcers' 
wheat-bread is sold at about our rates, and British gooils are in 
general cheaper than with us. On the whole, it is perhai)S as 
pleasant and desirable a residence as any part of the East. 

On commerce and trade there are no restrictions. Vessels 
pay no tonnage, and merchandise no duty. Even pilotage is es- 
tablished at low rates, and such as choose to dispense with a 
pilot, pay only a small sum, for the benefit of the buoys. Ship 
and boat building, on English and native models, is done to the 
amount of some thousand tons i^er annum. 



62 BURMAH. 

The imports from Tavoy and Mergui are principally attaps, or 
dennees, (leaves stitched upon strips of ratan, ready for thatch- 
ing,) damai' torches, cardamoms, sapan wood, gnapee, ratans, pre- 
served doiyans, mats, salt, yams, and ivory. In return are seat to 
these places cotton, oil, English goods, paddy, beef, lime, and 
tamarinds. 

From Rangoon are imported cutch or catechu, stick lac 
gi'am, oil-seed, earth-oil, sesamum-oii, lappet, (tea,) wheat, ivory 
lackered ware, glazed pottery, jaggery, (black sugar,) Burman 
silks, tamarinds, chillies, garlic, &c. ; and in return are sent areca- 
nuts, cotton, dates, English goods, cocoa-nuts, &c. 

From Penang are brought umbrellas, muskets, torches, dates, 
coffee, &c. ; and in return are sent chiefly paddy and rice. 

From Calcutta are brought specie, English goods, wines, gin- 
ger, steel, rose-water, sugar; and almost the only important return 
is teak timber. The same may be said of Madras. This is about 
the whole commerce of Maulmaiu. From eight to twelve ves- 
sels enter and clear per month. 

Among the inhabitants are 500 Chinese, and above 2,000 other 
foreigners, most of whom are irom Bengal and Madi-as. Each 
class has a place of worship, and adlieres to its national costume 
and habits. The English have a Company's chaplain, and a 
capacious church. Here service is regularly performed, and the 
troops are required to attend. The English Baptist church have 
also a good meeting-house of teak, and one of the missionaries 
always acts as pastor. At present, Mr. Osgood discharges this 
duty, in connection with his engagements at the printing-office. 

Though there is not the slightest restraint upon idolatry in 
these provinces, the people are certainly less devoted to their 
superstition than before the war. It is scarcely possible to dis- 
cover, from the appearance of the streets, when the worship-days 
occur; and the number of priests is much less than it would be 
among an equal population in Burmah Proper. The people are 
evidently ripening for some change. There is therefore eminent 
necessity for following up, with the utmost vigor, the means for 
extending Christianity. The morals of the people would greatly 
suffer by the loss of their religious system, if no other were to be 
substituted. Such a crisis is not altogether improbable, and the 
people of God are most affectingly called upon, by the state of 
the case, to send out more teachers forthwith. 

Still, Boodhism is as yet by no means a neglected sys- 
tem. New pagodas are making their appearance in different 
parts of the city. There are twenty-nine kyoungs, containing 



STATE OF BOODIIISM. 63 

somewhat more than 500 priests, iiicluding novitiates, who are 
plentifully supported. The kyoungs are vastly superior to the 
dwellings of tlie common peojjle, and some of them are situated 
in delightful groves with ample grounds. Here and there is a 
sacred bannian-tree, carefully nurtured, and occasionally lighted 
with lamps at night. Li tlie city and suburbs are seventy-eight 
pagodas. 

My evening walks with Mr. and Mrs. Judson, were upon tlie 
hills, and near the principal of these pagodas. The ascent is 
fatiguing, though part of tiie way is facilitated by brick stairs 12 
or 15 feet wide. The pagoda, as usual, is entirely solid. Around 
its base are smaller ones, and numerous shrines built of brick 
nicely stuccoed, like little temples, from the size of a large dog- 
house up to the size of a small dwelling. Within and around 
these are images of Gaudama, precisely like the pictures of him 
common in Americii, generally well gilt. Little paper flags, &c. 
&c. are before them, — the offerings of the devout. Tall flag- 
staffs are numerously planted on the crown of the hill, with 
various streamers, some of which are tasteful and elegant. 

A large and substantial Iiouse stands beside the pagoda, 
literally filled with images of Gaudama, most of them of colossal 
size. These ai'e made of brick, with a thick coating of plaster, 
perfectly smooth, and resembling marble. There are some 
hundreds of these, all in perfect re})air, many of them apparently 
placed there by these deceived idolaters, quite lately. The num- 
ber continually increases. One of these images is in a re- 
cumbent posture, and nmst be at least forty feet long. Some 
of the images represent worshippers, m a most reverent attitude, 
before certain figures. 

While walking among these distressing evidences of folly and 
misery, we often saw scenes like the following : — A poor man 
struggled up the back part of the mountain with a little child 
on his hip, less than three yeare old, plucking a few green twigs 
from the bushes as he passed. He went up to a great bell, 
suspended in the area, and, taking a deer's horn lying on the 
gi-ound for the purpose, struck it twice or thrice. Then, rev- 
erently entering the image-house, he })rostrated himself, and 
taught his little one to do the same, which it did so readily as 
to make it certain it was not its first attempt. He then prayed 
with the palms of his hands placed together, and raised to his 
forehead, while the poor little babe lisped out some of the same 
words. At the conclusion, he walked up to the idol he had 



64 BURMA H. 

addressed, aiid laid before it, with great solemuity, his oflering 
of green leaves, aud, talcing up the babe, descended the 
mountain. 

O ye parents, who take no pains to teach your little ones to 
adore, and trust, and serve the eternal God, be reproved and 
abashed! That poor idolater may confront and condemn you 
at the last awful day ! 

Thank God, the gospel is slowly extending its happy con- 
quests in this place. Two very respectable people applied for 
baptism last Lord's day, and many are persuaded that Boodh 
is no God, A hundred Christians hold forth the truth, and a 
teeming press presents to the people the divine testimony. But 
we must pray for the Spirit's influence. May not this be oiu* 
chief deficiency ? 

Tlie mission here was established by Mr. Boardman with the 
first settlement of the town by the British in 1827. Mr, Judson 
came in a few months, and Mr. Boardman left the place to 
commence the station at Tavoy. It is now the principal point 
in our mission, having the printing-office, five houses for mis- 
sionaries, an Englisli chapel, a large teak-wood zayat, and small- 
er zayats in different parts of the town. Belonging to the 
station are Mr. Judson, Mr, Hancock, Mr. Osgood, and Mr. Ben- 
nett. The latter is wholly engaged m teaching an English high- 
school for native childi-en, and is neai'ly supported by the salary 
allowed by the Company. 

The printing-office is of brick, two stories high, 136 feet long 
by 56 wide. It is in the form of an J , so that the picture, which 
was taken from Mr. Judson's veranda, shows only a part. It 
contains tour hand-presses, and a power-press, equal to two 
more ; twelve small founts of English type, one of Burman, 
one of Karen, and one of Taling. For these last, there are 
punches and matrices complete, so that they may be cast anew 
at any time. The expense has, of course, been enormous, there 
being about one thousand matrices for the Burman fount alone, 
A new set of punches and matrices has just been ordered for 
the Burman character on a size reduced one third. The upper 
rooms of the office are devoted to a bindery, storage, &c. The 
capabilities of the bindery are I'ully equal to the work of the 
j)rinting-office. Every part of the labor, in printing and binding, 
is performed by natives ; of whom, on an average, 25 ai'e con- 
stantly employed. 



MAULMAIN. 



65 




Printin^'Office at Maulmain. 

The native church under Mr. Judson's care has more than a 
i. dudred members. Some sixteen or eighteen are valuable 
t..*sistauts, of whom a part are generally employed at other 
nations. Such as are employed here, meet Mr. Judson every 
niorning at sunrise, and give an account of their labors dur- 
ing the previous day, often rehearsing the veiy conversations. 
An excellent opportmiity is thus obtained for enlarging and recti- 
fying their views, and giving them helpful ideas in particular 
cases. On Simday, the congregation consists of but few beside 
the church-members. If any attend three or four Sundays, they 
are pronounced disciples by their friends, and indeed generally 
become so. 

English mfluence, in a variety of ways, improves the temporal 
condition of these provinces. It has abolished those border wars, 
which kept this people and their neighbors contmually wi-etched. 
None but those familiar with the counti-y can describe the evils 
produced by a Burman war. The troops ai'e di-awn from the 
remotest provinces, and, as they march, laborers, stores, money, 
boats, and cattle, are taken without compensation. They have no 
tents, no pay, no regular rations, and suffer eveiy sort of hardship. 
Every where, as they go, the yjeople fly into the jungle ; and such 
property as cannot be carried away is plundered without restraint. 
Poverty and distress are thus spread over the whole kingdom, 
even bv a petty border conflict. Of com-se, at the seat of war, 
' 3* 



66 BURMAH. 

every evil is magnified a hundred fold. The mode of rait-iiig 
troops is the worst possible. Each chief is required to furnish 
so many, and is sure to get rich by the operation. He calls first 
upon those who have money, and suffers them to buy themselves 
off*, takmg finally only those who have no money. So, if he 
want boats, tlie richer boatmen pay a bribe and get off", and the 
poorer must go. So with caits, and, in fact, every thing. The 
suppression of war cuts off" a large poi'tion of the chances for 
these extortions. 

In the Tenasserim provinces, various improvements are per- 
ceptible. Coin is getting introduced instead of masses of lead and 
silver; manufactures are improving; implements of improved 
construction are used; justice is better administered; life is 
secure ; propertj' is sacred ; religion is free ; taxes, though heavy, 
are more equitably imposed ; and courts of justice aie pure, 
generally. Formerly, men were deterred from gatheruig round 
them comforts superior to their neighbors, or building better 
houses, for iear of exactions. Now, being secure in their earnings, 
the newly-built houses ai"e much improved in size, materials, 
and workmanship. 

Presuming that my readers would be glad to see Mr. Judson's 
residence, and desirous of giving a sj)ecimen of the houses of 
our Burman missionaries, I made a drawing, which is given in 
a reduced size below. It contains three good-sized rooms and 
two small ones. It is built precisely like the natives' houses, only 
larger and better, and cost about three hiuidred dollars. All 
our Burman missionaries use similar ones. During my pleasing 
residence wth this great and good man, the small room on the 
extreme lefl; was my chamber, and the lai'ge one, with two little 
fir-trees under the windows, my study. The centre room is 
the dining-hall, and the farthest one Mr. J.'s chamber. His 
study is a large apartment partitioned off" from one end of the 
chapel. The kitchen, or " cook-house," is always a small, sepa- 
rate building. 




Mr. Jadion's Hoose. 



I 



67 



CHAPTER IV. 

Population of Rangoon ; Commerce; Prices of Living — Shoodagon Pagoda 

— Slaves of the Pagoda — Sunrise VVorsliip — Rainy Monsoou — Mission 

— Voyage to Pegu — Evidences of former Greatness — Siioomadoo Pagoda 

— \ oyage up the Irrawaddy — Boats — 3Iode of Fishing — Prome — 
Leper Village — Gaudama's Foot — Burnian Energy — Earth-oil Wells — 
Shyan Caravan — Ruins of Paghan — Attempt to buy Beef — Buffalo 
Herdmen — Curiosity of Natives — Toddy — Arrival at Ava. 

On the 14th of May, the sad hoiir of bidding adieu to the dear 
missionaries and their interesting disciples arrived ; and I em- 
barked for Rangoon. Every day had increased my regai'd for 
them, and the probability of seeing them no more made the last 
tew days truly sorrovi^ful. 

The change of the monsoon, which now takes place, is often 
accompanied with severe squalls ; but these coasting vessels 
have little fear of them, and never lay up on that account. 
Often the season passes without any that are serious, as it has 
this year. We had two or three flurries, with rain ; but they 
helped us on powerfully, and the 17th (of May) found me at Ran- 
goon, Avithout accident. The entrance of the river, though six 
mUes wide, is difficult to find, the channel very narrow, and the 
coast veiy shoal for a great distance above and below ; while a 
perfectly flat shore, sccu-cely above high tides, gives the mariner 
no certain land-marks. There are no pilots to be had, but by 
sending a boat to the city. On one point is a cluster of trees, 
which has been called "the elephant," from a fancied resem- 
blance to that animal ; but my imagination was too dull to dis- 
cern much shape. The sands have extended some miles to 
the southward, since the coast was first surveyed. 

Having passed the ordeal of the custom-house, without any 
special vexations, I found Messrs. Webb and Howard, with their 
wives, in usual health, and received from them a kind and cor- 
dial reception. 

The name of Rangoon is so conspicuous in the annals of our 
mission, and occurs so often in the narratives of travellers on this 
coast, that I natin-ally entered it with feelings of peculiar interest. 
Association of ideas, of course, keeps up some of that interest ; 
but so wretched a looking town, of its size, I have no where seen. 



63 BURMAH. 

The city is spread upon part of a vast meadow, but little above 
high tides, and at this season resembling a neglected swamp. 
The approach from the sea reveals nothing but a few wooden 
houses between the city wall and the shore. The fortifications 
are of no avail against modern modes of attack. They consist 
of merely a row of timbers set in the ground, rising to the height 
of about 18 feet, with a narrow platform running round inside 
for musketeers, and a few cannon, perhaps half a dozen in all, 
lymg at the gateways, in a useless condition. Some considerable 
streets ai-e back of the town, outside the walls. 

The entire population is estunated at 50,000, but that is proba- 
bly too much. There is no other seaport in the empu"e, but 
Bassein, which has little trade, and the city stands next in im- 
portance to Ava; yet there is literally nothing in it that can in- 
tei'est a traveller. A dozen foreigners, chiefly Monguls, have 
brick tenements, very shabby. There are also four or five small 
brick places of worship, for foreigners, and a miserable custom- 
house. Beside these, it is a city of bamboo huts, comfoi-tiible for 
this people, considering their habits and climate ; but m appear- 
ance as paltry as possible. Maulmain has already many better 
buildings. The eaves of the houses generally descend to within 
six or eight feet of the ground ; veiy few beuig of more than 
one stoiy, or having any other covering than thatch. Cellars are 
unknown, and all the houses ai'e raised two or three feet above 
the ground for coolness and ventilation. As the floors are of 
split bamboo, all dut falls through, and what is not picked up by 
crows, dogs, fowls, &c., is occasionally swept out, and burned. 
For nearly half the year, the city presents a most singular appear- 
ance, half sad, half silly. By a standing law, on the setting in 
of the diy season, all the thatch must be removed, except a par- 
ticular kind, not common, made partly of split bamboo, which 
will not easily burn. Were it not for the people in the streets, 
and the cloths of various kinds put up in the houses to keep off 
the sun, it would seem, at these times, like a city deserted. 

The streets ai'e narrow, and paved with half-burnt bricks, 
which, as wheel-carriages are not allowed within the city, are in 
tolerable repair. There is neither wharf nor quaj\ In four or 
five places are wooden stairs, at which small boats may land 
passengers ; but even these do not extend within twenty feet of 
low-water mark. Vessels lie in the stream, and discharge into 
boats, from which the packages, slung to a bamboo, are lugged 
on men's shoulders to the custom-house. 

The commerce of the place is still considerable, though great- 



PRICES OF LIVING. 69 

ly crippled by enormous port-charges, and absolute prohibitions 
agamst exi)orting rice or the precious metals. Specie is ex- 
ported, but only by adi-oit smuggling. Could rice be exi)orted 
freely, a most beneficial trade, both to government and people, 
might be carried on, tlie agricultm'ist receive a better reward 
for liis toil, and the price of land be raised tlu-oughout the king- 
dom. Paddy is now selling at five rupees the hundi'ed baskets; 
that is, about $2,50 for a hundred bushels ! 

The best clean rice is twelve annas a basket — about forty 
cents a bushel ! Wheat, as good as I have ever seen, is selling at 
twenty dollars per hundred bushels. Such prices would send 
here half the vessels m Bengal Bay. How strange that govern- 
ments must always be douig damage, by dabbluig in mattei'S 
which, if left to themselves, would prosper! — However, the 
policy is certainly more wise than that of Great Britam, which 
lets some of her subjects annually starve, and others constantly 
suffer, by keeping bread-stuffs away. 

Other necessaries are etjually cheap in Rangoon — fowls, about 
one dollar per dozen ; black tea, brought down the IrraM'addy 
from China, twelve cents a poimd ; rice, a cent for three pounds ; 
coffee, ten cents per pound ; sugar, ten ; bread, twice our price ; 
eggs, filly cents per hundred ; milk, forty-five cents per gallon : 
wages, six dollars per month, without food or lodging ; oil for 
cooking and lamps, eight cents per pound; washing, four dollars 
per hundred ; fuel, about seventy-five cents per month. Almost 
every kind of British manufactures may be had in the bazar, at 
rates not higher than they cost in Boston. Medicmes are not 
easily procured, and many kinds are excessively dear. 

During the long wars of Europe, in the days of Napoleon, 
many vessels were built here, chiefly by the English, amounting, 
on an average, from 1790 to 1802, to three or four thousand tons 
per annum. At the time of Colonel Symmes's visit, in 1795, there 
were several ships on the stocks, of from 600 to 1000 tons' 
burden. This branch of business is now almost annihilated. 

Two miles from Rangoon is the celebrated pagoda, called 
Slwo-da-gon. It stands on a small hill, surrounded by many 
smaller jiagodas, some fine zayats and kyoungs, and many noble 
trees. The hill has been graduated into successive terraces, sus- 
tained by brick walls ; and the summit, which is completely lev- 
elled, contains about two acres. 

The two principal approaches from the city are lined on each 
side, for a mile, with fine pagodas, some almost vieingfor size with 
Shoodagon itself These ai'e in every state of repair; from 



70 BCRMAH. 

beautiful white new ones to mere grass-grown heaps. In most 
of them the apertures still remain, through Avhich the English 
soldiers penetrated, to tfike the treasure always deposited in them. 
Even the great pagoda did not escape ; but it is so perfectly re- 
paired, as to show no signs of the indignity. 

Passing these on your way from the city, you come to a flight 
of time-worn steps, covered by a curious arcade of little houses 
of various forms and sizes, one above another, some in partial 
decay, others truly beautiliil. After crossing some terraces, cov- 
ered in the same manner, you reach the top, and, passing a great 
gate, enter at once this sad but imposing theatre of Gaudama's 
gloiy. One's first impressions are, what terrible grandeur ; what 
sickening magnificence ; what absurd unageiy ; what extrava- 
gant expenditure ; what long successions of devotees to procure 
this throng of buildings of such various dates ; what a poor re- 
ligion that makes such labors its chief meritoriousness. Before 
you stands the huge Shoodagon, its top among the clouds, and 
its golden sides blazing in the glories of an Eastern sun. Around 
ai'e pompous zayats, noble pavements, Gothic mausoleums, un- 
couth colossal lions, curious stone umbrellas, gracefully cylindri- 
cal banners of gold-embroidered muslin hanging from lofty pil- 
lai's, enormous stone jars in rows to receive offerings, tapers 
burning before the images, exquisite flowers displayed on every 
side, filling the air with fragrance, and a multitude of carved 
figures of idols, worshippers, griffins, guardians, &c. 

Always, in the morning, men and women ai*e seen in every 
direction kneeling behind their gift:, and with uplifted hands reci- 
ting their devotions, often with a string of beads counting over 
each repetition ; aged persons sweep out eveiy place, or 
pick the grass from the crevices; dogs and crows straggle 
around the altai's, and devour the recent offerings ; the great bells 
utter their frequent tones ; and the mutter of praying voices 
makes a hum like the buzzing of an exchange. The whole scene 
is so strange, so distressing, that one is relieved to stroll away 
among the huge trees, and gaze from the pai-apet on the unlim- 
ited scene around. Tt is one wide, flat jungle, without a single 
hill, but that of Syrian in the distance ; but it is nature. It is the 
true temple of the true God; the only representation he has given 
of his natural perfections, as the Bible is of his moral ones. All 
the rest is distortion, al)surdify, and crime. Of inferior pagodas, 
(though some surpass m size any I have seen elsewhere,) there 
are, m Rangoon, more than five hmidred, occupying as much 
space as the city itself, pi-obably more. Most of them stand a 



PAGODA SLAVES WORSHIPPERS. 71 

little out of the city, interspersed with groves, embowering costly 
kyoungs and coniniodious zayats. The latter are particularly 
numerous, to accommodate the hosts of worshippers who resort 
hitiier at certain seasons of tlie year. 

In the vicinity of the hill are 150 families of " slaves of the 
pagoda," containing about two Imndred men, and, as theu" chief 
told me, "plenty of women." They do not appear to be poor or 
despised, and tlieir quarter of the city is not distinguished by any 
particular featui-e. They become so, not always because of 
crime, but otlen by merely incurring the displeasure of a great 
man ; or he gives them as an act of piety. Most of them are so 
by bij-th, for the progeny of such persons ai'e forever in the 
same condition. They aie not allowed to marry, except among 
themselves. 

I visited the pagoda frequently, about sunrise, as it is the only 
direction in which one can ride. There were always twenty-five 
or thirty worshippers scattered up and down ; and on the regular 
worship days, several luuuhed. They come and go dui-ing 
tlie cool of the morning, remaining about fifteen minutes, and 
amounthig, I was told, in the whole, to two or three thousand. 
A few remain all day in the cool zayats, often repeating their 
worship, and spending the intervals of the time m friendly chat. 
Some, as an act of particular merit, stay all night. No priests 
are in official attendance, nor, indeed, did I ever see any there 
performing their own worship. The act of worship is called 
shee-lco, though the name is often given to the mere act of pros- 
tration which accompanies it. 

Every one brings a present, often a bunch of flowers, or only 
a few green twigs, plucked on the way ; but generally the nicest 
eatables ready cooked, beautiful bunches of flowers, articles of 
raiment, &c. The amount of offerings here is very great. Stone 
vases, some of which will hold fifty or sLxty gallons, stand round 
the pagoda, into which the devotees carefully lay their leafy 
plates of rice, plantains, cakes, (fcc. As these are successively 
filled, appointed persons from among the pagoda slaves empty 
them into their vessels, assorting the vai-ious kinds. The beauti- 
ful flowers remain all night, and are swept out in the morning. 
No^Q^e ever objected, however, to my gathering them at pleasure. 
A gift once deposited is no more regarded. I have seen crows 
and dogs snatch the gift ere the offerer had well done his 
praj'ers, without the shadow of resistance being offered. 

The reproof of Jehovah to Israel by the j)rophet often came 
strongly to my muid as these crowds passed on with their 



beautiful flowers, and the finest of the fruits of the eai-th. — " She 
did not know that 1 gave her corn, and wme, and oil, and multi- 
pHed her silver and gold, which they prepare for Baal : therefoi-e 
I will take away my corn and my wine, and will recover my 
wool and my flax." Hosea ii. 8, 9. How boundless the goodness 
and forbearance of God! "Will a man rob God? Yet these rob 
him of the tithes and offerings" bestowed on their senseless 
images, and take his fruits of the earth to do honor to the things 
his soul abhors. I could not but feel, as 1 gazed upon the rich 
landscape and bright heavens, and marked the joy of the young 
men and maidens as they passed on, that He who then forbore 
would in his abmidant mercy " give them pastors after his own 
heart, who shall teach them knowledge and understanding." 

The rainy monsoon has been considered fairly set in, since 
the 10th of May, but it rains as yet generally only towards night, 
and the weather is every way delicious ; eveiy tree being ever- 
green, a few showers bring forth all the beauties of midsummer. 
Though the smi is nearly vertical, the clouds and showers so cool 
the air, that the thermometer seldom rises above 86° or 87° at 
noon, and goes down to 80° before morning. 1 have now passed 
the ordeal of the entire hot season ; and of nothing am 1 more 
convinced, both from experience and obsei-vation, and especially 
fi-om the testimony of very many intelligent foreign residents, than 
that the climate is as salubrious and as pleasant as any other in 
the world. I have suffered from heat greatly more m Italy, and 
even in Philadelphia, than I have ever done here, and have never 
found a moment when I could not be perfectly comfortable by 
sitting still. To go abroad m mid-day, is, however, more intoler- 
able, and, for any but natives, is eminently hazardous. 

The mission to this city has had great disadvantages, and the 
apparent results are at this time very small. The first mission- 
aries, who were English, chose a situation outside the town 
neai' the pagoda, and erected a building fai- too sumptuous. One 
afterward chose another field, and the other, another employment. 
Tlie station was never effectively occupied till by Mr. Judson, 
who, being without native assistants, without the language, with- 
out tracts, ■without experience, and living in the same house, was 
here many years before he began to make direct evangelical 
efforts among the people. 

All travellers accord to Burmans the praise of uncommon 

energy, and in this respect they doubtless stand very fai- above 

their neighbors. But though possessed of nuich muscular 

power, and ready at tinies to exert it all, tlieir activitv will not 

4 



' VOYAGE TO PEGU. 73 

compare with that of northern men. In negotiations of all 
sorts, they ai-e particularly slow, crafty, and suspicious. From 
the day of my anival, I looked out for a boat to convey me to 
Pegu, Ava, &.C., and several limes thought I had succeeded in 
hiring a suitable one; but have been finally compelled to pur- 
chase. Being a mere hull, it has been necessaiy to build upon 
it the customary appurtenances, and I have found it impos- 
sible to expedite the business. Through the kind offices of Mr. 
Lanceigo, collector of the port, I have an excellent and experi- 
enced old pen-in, or head boatman, who, with six men, engages 
to take me to Pegu and Ava for a given sum. 

On the fo'st of June, I set forward to visit Pegu and adja- 
cent towns, accompanied by Mr. Webb, two of the na- 
tive assistants, and a sei-vant. A clear sky enabled us to get 
everj' thing on board without wetting, and we got on finely 
for a couple of hours, when a squall came up, which nearly 
swamped us ; but it was soon over, and we baled out the 
boat, and proceeded with renewed obligations to praise Him 
"who walketh upon the wuid and maketh tlie clouds his 
chariot" 

The comfort and confidence with which, in this region, one 
may travel for half the year, secure from storm or shower, are now 
reversed. It rains daily. The atmosphere, loaded with mois- 
ture, insinuates its dampness every where, making musty and 
mouldy the veiy clothes in one's trunk. Those who are at home 
here can do very well by wrapping tilings in flannel or waxed 
cloths, or putting them in tin boxes, &c. But the traveller, and 
tlie vo3fager in a small boat, has none of these conveniences. 

Entering the Pegu River about an hour's pull below Rangoon, 
we ascended to tlie ancient and famous city of Pegu in three 
tides. Had we not stopped to look at towns, distribute tracts, 
&c., two tides would have answered, by which I judge the dis- 
tance to be about sixty miles. The river empties into the Ran- 
goon by a wide moutii, but soon narrows to two hundi'ed yards, 
and before we get to the city, to as many feet. Only small boats 
ascend it further. The banks are luxuriant flats, covered with a 
gi-ass ten or twelve feet high, (the saccJiarum spontaneum,) much 
used in thatching. For the first forty miles, no habitations are to 
be seen. Monkeys, alligators, cranes, and vultures, were numer- 
ous. Elephants, deer, wild hogs, tigers, &c., are said to be 
abinidant, but we saw none. This fair and fruitful region is 
almost abandoned, while whole nations struggle to glean from 
baiTenness and frigidity a hard subsistence. 



74 BURMA 11. 

Within twenty miles of Pegu, we fomid villages, and gave 
tracts, accompanied with exhortations from Mr. Webb and tiie 
assistants. Li these towns, no tracts had ever been given, no 
Christian teacher had ever been seen. Many refused our books, 
suspecting some snare ; but the most received them gladly. 
Most of the tracts were Extracts from the Old Testament, Mai'k, 
Luke, and Lite of Christ. The latter is a copious harmony of 
tlie four Gospels, wholly in Scripture language. 

Having made considerable alterations in my boat, suggested 
by experience in going to Pegu, I left Rangoon for Ava, accom- 
l)anied by Mr. Howard, as interpreter, on the 14th of June. The 
weather was fine, and before the end of the flood tide, we had 
rowed twenty-five miles on the Panlang, one of the mouths of 
the great river of Burmah. The country was flat, iuundated at 
high tides, and uncultivated, till toward evening, when the banks 
were higher, the lands laid out for rice, and villages numerous. 

Stopping, at the expiration of the next tide, at Kew-new, 
twenty-five miles further, we found a cluster of large villages, 
amounting to fifteen or sixteen hundi-ed houses. Linumerable 
boats, lai-ge aiid small, were taking in rice, salt, fish, &c., for the 
upper countiy. Hiring two small canoes, which could penetrate 
among the crowd of boats, we supplied tracts to all who would 
accept them on both sides of the river ; thus sending the trutli 
to perhaps a hundi'ed different villages. Before getting the 
canoes, I gave to all the boats passing by, and was affected to see 
some who could not come neai*, plunge into the river and swim 
to me for them, and, beai-ing them back with upraised hand, sit 
down instantly to read them aloud. Some women applied for 
books, who proved their claim by reading fluently. In most of 
the boats, large and small, were women and children, who 
seemed at home, and, I am told, spend much of the year (in some 
cases all of it) in this way. In the small craft, they generally 
steer the boat while the husband rows. 

The boats on this river, though of all sizes up to 200 tons, are 
but of two general descriptions. All retain the canoe shape, 
shai'p at each end. Large boats have one mast, and a yard of 
long, slender bamboo, to which is suspended a square sail. The 
sail is made in sections, the centre ones only being used in 
strong winds, and the others added at the sides when necessary. 
Sometimes a small sail is temporarily fastened above the yard to 
the ropes, by which it is sustained- The deck extends from five 
to ten feet beyond the sides, with large bamboos fastened be- 
neatli ; making at once a platform for the mer], when using their 



ASCEi\L)I>'U THE IRRAWADDY. 



75 



setting-poles, &c., and an outrigger to prevent their upsettnig. 
The vessel itself is wholly covered with a regular Burman house, 
well thatched, which carries pail of the cargo, and fimiishes 
cabins to the family and boatmen. This gives them just the ap- 
pearance of the pictures of Noah's ark m children's books. Over 
this roof is a platform, on which the men stand to work the sail. 
They are manned by from fifteen to twenty-five or thirty men, 
and sometimes forty or more ; the captain, or owner, having 
their wives and whole families on board. A better idea of these 
boats may be gained by the picture of Sagaing, in which two 
are introduced. 




Asoendiag the Irrawaddy. 

My boat is a sample of such as persons in moderate circum- 
stances use for going from town to town, and in the small way of 
trade along the river. It is a canoe hollowed out of one log, for- 
ty-six feet long, deepened by a single plank fastened on each side. 
The stem and stem are left solid for thiee or four feet, and cune 
upward out of the water, especially aft. The forwai-d half is 
decked with bamboo and thatch. As Burmans sit cross-legged 
on a floor to row, this accommodates them in using both oars 
and poles, and furnishes a sleeping- place beneath for the native 
assistants. The boatmen always sleep on deck. About twelve 
feet of the after half is occupied by two little cabins for myself 
and Mr. H., one for sleepmg, and the other, which contains a 
table, chair, &c., sei-vmg as a parlor. The sides of the latter are 
made of light mats, the upper half turning up for a window. 
The sleeping-room is but three feet high, as baggage, food, &c., 
must be kept under it ; but the floor of the sitting-room being 



76 BURMAH. 

near the bottom of the boat, enables us to stand up m it. Behind 
the rooms is the kitciien, viz. a slialloAV box filled witli earth; 
beneath which is wood and water ; while at the side hangs a 
hen-coop. Round the rooms is an outrigger, to enable the men 
to pass back and forth without intruding on me, and to prevent 
her oversetting. This last appendage is not common to boats of 
tills size. Finding her to roll heavily, we fastened at the water- 
mark a bamboo, ten or eleven inches in diameter, running netuly 
the length of the boat. The sail, which is square, is fastened 
Ijetween two bamboos, which stand up abeam of each other, 
in the form of the letter V. 

Such is my home for much of this " rains." For the first few 
days, I was so cramped for room, and so incommoded with rain, 
heat, smoke, and musquitoes, that it was difficult to do any thing 
in the way of study. But now I am quite at ease ; the mus- 
quitoes are letl behind ; my little matters are all adjusted, and I 
fuid it luxury to enjoy the entire command of my time — a luxury 
lor many yeais almost unknown. 

Ten days' diligent progress brought me witliin a day or two of 
Prome, where the unbroken level of the vast delta of the Irra- 
waddy begins to be relieved by the occasional sight of distant 
hills. A few miles onward, they approach the I'iver, where their 
abraded bases present the now novel sight of stones and gravel. 
The rocks are red calcareous sandstone, quartz, and breccia, the 
gravel chiefly quartz. Undulations now begin to appear in the 
sui-face of the countiy, and on the whole the scenery is attrac- 
tive. More delightful weather could not be. A fine shower or 
two, nearly every day, lasts half an hour or so, and the tempera- 
ture varies agreeably from eighty to eighty-five degrees in the 
day, descending two or tlu-ee degrees at night, while at all times 
there is a fine breeze. This, for the hot season, as it now is, was 
much cooler than I had ex-jiected. The banks now begin to be 
high, and dry enough to admit walking along the shore, and 1 
find it pleasant to pass through the beautiful groves of mango, 
tamarind, and palm-trees, which divide the villages. Hitherto 
we have had villages in sight almost every moment, sometimes 
several at a time. It is so, still ; but on ascenduig the bank, we 
find others, not visible from the boat, stretching along a mile 
back from the river. Beyond are extensive paddy-fields, with 
lai'ge herds of buffaloes. 

The river is now thirty feet above its lowest stage, and spreads 
for a mile or two on each side, not in one vast sheet, but cutting 
up the countiy into innumerable islands. We follow the remote 



\ 



MODE OF FISHING PROME. 77 

windings to avoid the powerful current of the main stream, 
and thus find many villages where no white face was ever seen. 
These are generally small, but consist sometimes of several hun- 
dred houses. As no missionary has gone up the river to give 
tracts m the rainy season, there is little doubt but that many of 
these people noAV for the first time receive the knowledge of" the 
true religion. On the great river, we often find persons who 
have had tracts, and now utterly refuse them. But in these by- 
ways, all receive them with gladness. 

I feel especially anxious to furnish the boats with books. 
Issuing, as they do, out of eveiy creek, they will carry some 
knowledge of the eternal God to hundreds of villages where no 
missionaiy is likely to penetrate for years. 

Several times, lately, I have obsei'ved an ingenious, and to me 
novel mode of fishing. A score or more of gourds are suffered 
to float down the stream, from each of which depends a hook 
and line. The fisherman, in his little canoe, passing fi-om one to 
another, takes up what is caught, baits the hooks, and when he 
has followed them a mile or two, returns with his fish, or begins 
again. 

A strong southerly wind brouglit us to Prome {Pyee-myu, as 
tlie natives call it) early on the afternoon of the 24th, and gave 
us sufficient opportunity of viewing the city. For eight or nine 
miles, the villages had been contiguous, some of them veiy large. 
We walked over a good deal of the city. It exliibits every where 
symptoms of poverty and decay ; and, from an estimate made on 
a height in the suburb, I should judge it to contain less than five 
hundred houses. The walls are mostly fallen down, the ditch 
filled up, and the stately remains of ancient superstition hasten- 
ing to ruin. We went a little way beyond the city to a fine hill, 
on which stands a pagoda not much smaller than that at Ran- 
goon, and gilded from top to bottom. The ascent is by brick 
stau-s, covered with a succession of zayats. In some respects, it 
is a more interesting spot than the hill of Shoo-da-gon. The 
city is more plainly seen, the vicinity is far more beautiful, and 
the distant mountains form a fine back-ground. Around the 
pagoda are many smaller ones, containing beautiful mai'ble 
images, some as large as life. A very handsome temple is ap- 
propriated to a copy in stucco of the impression of Gaudama's 
foot, a copy of which is given in another pai't of the volume. A 
profusion of tees, gilded streamers, and other objects usually 
seen around pagodas, occupy the enclosure ; and the whole air 
of the place is that of solemn antiquity. In one of the zayats 



73 BURMAH. 

sat an old man, thin, and of a fine intellectual countenance, eat- 
ing a nice dinner, wliicli some women had brought him, who 
were sitting near to return with the dishes. He has determined 
to spend his remaining days or years on that venerated hill. 
What is brought him he eats. When nothing comes, he fasts. 
In different places were seen persons at prayer, or piously cut- 
ting up the grass which obtruded itself in the joints of the flag- 
ging. The bells, struck by coming worshippers, yielded deep, 
soil tones, and the chime from the lofty tee was particulai'ly 
clear and sweet. The sun, descenduig with uncommon splen- 
dor, threw his mitigated rays under the roofs of the ancient 
temples, casting twilight pomp upon the stately idols in the deep 
niches; silence reigned among the retired terraces and time- 
worn shrines ; the free, fresh breeze diffused luxurious coolness, 
and, as the shade of evening gathered on, the place seemed just 
such as a devoted Boodhist would choose for his abstractions. A 
Christian could not but recur to holy themes, and be wai'med 
with fei-vent aspu'ations for the coming of the Lord. 

Descending by different stairs, a polite citizen pointed out the 
evidences of a magnificent arcade, which was accidentally burnt 
several years ago. It was the rulers' way to the jjagoda. Over 
the low grounds beyond it is a fine causeway of brick, some 
hundred yards long. On each side, groves of palm, interspersed 
with kyoungs and little bridges, formed altogether a scene of 
great beauty. All this to the honor of a fi-ail man, who died and 
was buried, as his own worshippers admit ; while He who gives 
the rain in its season, and in whom they live, receives no rever- 
ence ! All this to " change the gloiy of the incorruptible God into 
an image," and " the truth of God into a lie " ! All this to " wor- 
ship and sei-ve the creature more tlian the Creator, who is God 
over all and blessed forever " ! O that this people may soon linow 
the riches of the goodness and long-suffering of God ! Alas ! 
that the best we can hope of this unhappy people, is, that, having 
"sinned without law, they shall perish without law"! 

Before reentering the city, we passed through a little village 
allotted to lepers. Four men and a woman seated themselves in 
a row, by the way-side, as we came up, and modestly solicited 
alms. Before giving any thing, 1 stopped some minutes to ob- 
serve the effects of this terrible disease. They made no clamor, 
did not repeat their solicitations, showed off no affectations, but 
were cheerful and entirely without pain. Much bodily suffermg 
is not endured in this disease, except at the commencement. One 
was not much affected : each of tlie others had lost all of tlieir 



I 



lepers' village — sce:«ery. 7Q 

fingers, and most of their toes. They were thin and haggard. 
The distressing scene brouglit powerfully to mind the gracious 
cures of our Divine Master. There are about thirty-five or forty 
of these persons in the city, occupying two villages. 

A couple of hours' sail from Prome, with our fine monsoon, 
brought us to a naiTOw pass in the river, resembling the high- 
lands of the Hudson. On one of the highest western summits is 
the famous pagoda Poo-o-dong, visible among the trees. Here 
Gaudama lived, and here is shown on a rock the print of his 
foot, evidently fabulous, one would think, even to a Burman ; for no 
human foot was ever of such a shape. Copies on stone, m plas- 
ter, or in painting, of this great wonder, are preserved in many 
places, and regarded with great veneration. I afl;erwai'd obtained 
one of these, from which the di-awing is made. 

On every side, for some days, we have indigo growing, and the 
large jars in which it is steeped, frequently stand m rows beside 
the river. Both soil and climate here are said to be eminently 
favorable to this plant, and the cultivation of it in experienced 
and scientific hands would certainly prove lucrative. Most of 
the product is consumed in this region, which is particularly 
devoted to manufactures. Large quantities of cotton cloth are 
daily seen hanging up at the villages, in the course of being 
dyed. Some of it is of a brilliant red, procured from native 
woods called nee-pe-zay and soo-ban. These are preferred even 
to the sapan wood, as yielding as good a color, and more 
durable. 

In every respect the landscape has now changed. Instead of 
an intermmable level, devoted mainly to coarse grass and paddy, 
without trees, without birds, and without houses, except in large 
villages, we have eveiy vai'iety of beautiful landscape ; fine 
hills, cultivated in patches, even to the summit, scattered houses, 
fenced fields, noble trees ; with horses, cattle, hogs, fowls, and 
numerous birds. Among the trees the beautiful and stately 
tamarind now begins to be seen. 

The number of trading boats on the river is astonishing. We 
pass scores every day, and sometimes hundi-eds. My boat being 
small, in mere ballast trim, and well manned, we pass eveiy 
thing, and thus have an opportunity of sujiplying numbers of 
them with tracts. The largest of them carry ten or twelve 
thousand bushels of uncleaned rice, the smaller three or foiu: 
hundred. Their chief lading seemed to be rice, salt, and gna-pee. 
In ascending, they are, for tlie most pai't, drawn by the crew 
with a rope from the bank, or proi)elled by setting-poles ; sailing 



80 BURMAU. 

only when the wind is fair, and neither too strong nor too weak. 
They are generally from tlu-ee to four months in ascending 
from the delta to Ava. 

No one can ascend the river \vithout beuig impressed with the 
hai'diliood, skill, energy, and good-humor of Burman boatmen, 
and the happy adaptedness of their boats to the navigation. 
In ascending, much of the way must be accomplished by setting- 
poles. For these they use straight bamboos, of a species which 
is almost solid, and veiy strong. The end is applied, not to the 
front of the shoulder, as with us, but above the collar-bone, or on 
the top of the shoulder. Bending forward till their hands touch 
the deck, they bring the resistance perpendicular to the spine, and 
thus possess far greater power than is possible by our mode. 
When but slight exertion is required, the pole is applied as with 
us. On many boatmen and coolies, a callus is formed on the 
top of the shoulder, which looks like a small swelling. Gettmg 
aground is a daily occuirence, and sometimes frequently in a day, 
owing to the continual shiftuig of the sands, and uncertainty as 
to the height of the water. In such cases, the men are instantly 
in the water, to shove off. Li pulling the boat by ropes, we fre- 
quently meet streams and nullahs, over which they swim without 
a moment's hesitation. If a bamboo or an oar fall overboard, 
they instantly plunge in and recover it. In fact, they seem al- 
most amphibious ; and Burman costume is most happily adapted 
to aquatic exigencies. The strength and energy with which they 
sm'mount difficulties, transcend any thing I ever saw among the 
boatmen on our own western waters, and in point of temper and 
morality they are uTimeasurably superior. In this trip and my 
various previous ones, I have never seen a quarrel, or heard a 
hard word. Cross accidents have occuri'ed, and we have fre- 
quently been entangled with other boats ; but all difficulties have 
been met and surmounted with good temper, and even hilarity. 

Familiarity with the watery element seems to prevail in Bur- 
mah, wherever there are streams. I have seen women and chil- 
dien swimming with ease and confidence ; and several times little 
children, scarcely able to walk alone, frightened at the white 
foreigner, have ])lunged into the water to swim to their mothers 
in the boats. The practice of mothers taking their infants daily 
to bathe, renders them perfectly fearless of the water. 

June 27. For some days the river scenery has been increasingly 
interesting. The country seems generally under tillage ; cities 
and towns line the shores, and the hills ai-e covered with fine 
forests. Italy itself might jut^tly be proud of the scenery. The 



PETROLEUM WELLS. 81 

improvements and population appear to extend, liowever, in 
some places at least, but a short distance from the river. 

Before sunset, June 28, came to for the night at Yay-nan- 
goung, a village important only for its trade in petroleum. The 
wells behig but two miles from the village, 1 immediately set out 
to walk to them. The way was well beaten by builock carts, 
often crossing the bed of the torrent, (now dry,) whence the 
village derives its name. A more rugged and desolate region 
can scai-cely be imagined. The rocks are sandstone, pudding- 
stone, and petrifactions ; the soil, sand and blue clay. Small 
hills on every side rise abruptly, like waves in a chopping sea, 
sterile and unsightly. One plant only seemed to find a congenial 
soil. It resembled a prickly pear, growing to the height of thiity 
feet, with stem a foot in diameter. 

The wells are veiy numerous, said to be more than 400, 
occupying a space of about 12 square miles. They are from 
200 to 300 feet deep, of small calibre, and sustained by scantling. 
The temperature of the oil, when fii'st raised to the top, is 89°. 
Men do not go down, but an earthen pot is lowei-ed in and di-awn 
up over a beam across the mouth, by two men running off with 
the rope. The pot is emptied into a little pool, where the water 
with which it is largely mixed subsides, and the oil is drawn off 
pure. It is exported in earthen jars, containing about 30 pounds. 
The price now, including the pots, is about a tical for 2-1 viss, 
or about 50 cents for ten pounds. A well yields about 400 or 
500 viss per day, and is worked by three or four men. Some- 
times 700 are obtained. The amount depends on the quantity 
of water di-awn up with the oil. A duly of one twentieth is paid 
to government. 

This most useful oil is very extensively used for lamps and 
torches, and is exported to all parts of the empire whither it can 
be taken by water. It is also used for preserving wood, mat 
partitions, palm-leaf books, &c. from insects and from the 
weather, and is an admirable article for these pm-poses. Even the 
white ants will not attack wood which has been brushed with it. 

For several days, we have noticed on the shore great quantities 
of petrified wood, and have gathered specimens, which exliibit 
the fibres and cells perfectly. Some trunks of trees, ten or 
twelve feet long, lie in the edge of the water, entirely petrified. 
Teeth, bones, &c. are found in the same state. The inhabitants 
assured me that they sometimes picked up petrified leaves. 

Sal-lay, a day's sail above the oil wells, though not large, is an 
important city It is the metropolis of a fertile district, and 



82 BURMAH. 

drives a considerable trade in jaggeiy, cutch, cotton, onions, &c. 
Here, as at several places before, we found Shyans, comfortably 
bivouacked on shore, and bartering blue jackets, stick lac, &c., 
for salt and salt-fish. Their commodities are brought in carts, 
and in panniers on the backs of bullocks. They seemed in no 
haste, were engaged m little manufactures for sale, and would 
jirobably remain till the close of the rains. They are instantly 
distinguished from Burmans, by wearing a regular round-about 
jacket and wide trousers of blue nankeen, reaching to the knees. 
The jackets are frequently quilted veiy neatly. 1 have seen 
various companies of them in different places, trading in the 
same manner. They always appear decidedly superior to Bur- 
mans in intelligence and civilization. There is, however, great 
difference in this respect between the different tribes. The in- 
formation I have obtained respecting this nation, from the peo- 
ple themselves, and other sources, with what I may hereafter 
collect, will appear in another place. 

The sceneiy since leaving the oil wells, is wholly changed. 
The hills are more naked, and the whole country wears a pecu- 
liar aspect of desolation ; villages are few, and the population 
evidently sparse. In some places, the western shore rises 
abruptly to the height of two or three hundred feet, of very soft 
sandstone. The eastern bank is less elevated. Thousands of 
birds have made perforations in the side for their nests. Among 
these, the common sparrow and the wild pigeon seemed most 
numerous. Liland are rugged and bleak hills, covered with 
shrubs and stunted trees. The soil of the valleys is the debris of 
sandstone and breccia, with very little loam. 

The remains of the once magnificent Pa-ghan stand in the 
midst of this region, so destitute apparently of the means of sup- 
porting human life. Such a locality, however, have some of the 
greatest cities in the world, and still more frequently the ruins 
of great cities. Man's presence and po^ver can make a garden 
in a desert, and his departure brings desolation over the fairest 
scenes. This city is said to have been founded A. D. 107 ; but 
none of the ruins have ascribed to them a higher date than A. D. 
860. An American coidd scarcely assign half this age to any 
building of brick. But these bricks are uncommonly fine, the 
masoniy exceedingly massive, and the chunnam, or stucco with 
which they were coated, almost indestructible, in so mild a cli- 
mate. The edifices, being regarded vvitii religious veneration, 
liave been preserved from all iutentioiial dilapidation. The 
plants and trees, too, which overgrow deserted edifices elsewhere, 



RUINS OF PAGIIAN. 83 

and, by insinuating their roots into crevices, hasten tlieir ruin, are 
here not seen. This last pecuharity lias been thought to arise 
from the influence of the adjacent earth-oil wells and springs, on 
tlie atmosphere. 

As would be expected by all who have seen a Burman city, 
these ruins are of sacred edifices only. The fiail bamboo houses 
of the people perish almost as soon as deserted. I entered the 
place from the north, where a common cart-way crossed the 
crumbled ridge of a great wall. Gullies and torrents cut up the 
environs on this side, and it is probable that the city never ex- 
tended over this region. Every spot, however, which would ac- 
conmiodate a pagoda, has one upon it. Within the wall, the 
ground is level, though very high, and commanding a wide pros- 
pect. Here, for the first time, I saw buildings which could be 
called temples; many of the pagodas being built hollow, with 
noble rooms devoted to images and image worship. Some of 
these, as well as those which are solid, are of the noblest descrip- 
tion ; little injured by time, with here and there some i-emains of 
the exterior gilduig in sheltered places. We entered some, and 
found superb carved and gilded ceilings, sheltering at once great, 
ghastly, hall-crumbled Gaudamas, and herds of cattle. Mai'ks 
of fii'e, in some, showed them to be used by the people for occa- 
sional homes, or perhaps by herdmen. 

I could not attempt to count these venerable piles. They are 
thickly scattered, not only over all the site of the city, but for 
miles around. Many of them are more than a hundred feet high. 
One, which seems to have been occasionally repaired, is two 
hundi-ed and ten feet high. The diflTerence between their shape 
and that of those in the lower provinces is very striking. In- 
stead of the solid mass of masonry, rising with a tapering spire, 
these are ponderous, wide-spread buildings, whose noble inte- 
riors entitle them to the name of temjjles. The arches are lofty, 
in both Grecian and Gothic forms, and the ceilings in many 
cases gilded and ornamented with painting and traceiy. The 
exterior is equally unlike the pagodas of Pegu, from the profusion 
of labored cornices, turrets, and spires, which are scattered over 
the whole surface. The general resemblance is to that given iu 
this volume, page 142. 

It is evident that great reverence yet exists for this spot ; for 
many of the pagodas, of a size scarcely inferior to their venerable 
neighbors, are certainly modern, and a few are new. Such a 
feature, in a landscape of ruins, is truly rare, and keeps the mind 
fastened on the sad thought that tlie cold and gloomy system 



84 BURMAII. 

which reared these " vain oblations," has not passed away with 
the infatuated generation who consti'ucted them. 

Tliat the people should come to these abandoned shrines, and 
add others also, to be left unhonored by the passing throng, is 
perhaps accounted for by the fact, that on this spot this i-eligion 
was first proclaimed in Burmah. Ah-ra-han, the successful 
missionary of Boodhism, here proclaimed its doctrines nearly a 
thousand years ago. At this place, (then the metropolis,) under 
the patronage of King Ah-nan-ya-tha-mon-zan, he taught his 
" new religion ; " and its spreading influence utterly supplanted 
polytheism, and all the ancient superstitions. Thus may man, 
with kingly aid, change the forms of human faith ; but, oh, how 
ho])eless are our efforts to change the hearts of this people, 
without divine aid! God grant that the period of Boodhist de- 
lusions may soon cease, and leave these new structures only to 
mark the melancholy prevalence of former sin! 

The boatmen having intimated, some days ago, that cattle 
were very plenty here, and that I might get a calf cheap, I in- 
quired if they wanted veal themselves. They rather reluctantly 
confessed their desire, knowing me to be aware of their religious 
scruples; but I i-eadily agreed that, if they would procure me a 
calfj my Madias servant should kill it, so that they might eat 
without compunction. Accordingly, at Noung-oo, the penin 
bought a fat yearling for a rupee and a half, (G7i cents.) But 
as the late owner was leading it to the river, half a dozen of the 
neighbors set up a clamor, because he had sold his beast to be 
killed ; a crowd gathered, the penin slunk away, and the disap- 
pointed owner led back his heifer ! The proper way to get meat 
is to shoot any fat animal you see, then pay its owner for the 
damage, and bear off your prize. The owner m such case es- 
cajjes blame, and is gratified to get the money. 

In this region, cattle are very numerous, both buffaloes and 
the braminy breed. We were offered, at the next village, a fine 
pan- of veiy fat oxen for six rupees. The roads are good here, 
and much inland transportation is carried on. We every evening 
saw herds brought over from the islands, where they had been 
pastured during the day. It was amusing to obsei-ve the skill of 
the herdmen in swimming them across the wide and rapid 
current With a short stick, they swam behind, making them 
keep tlieir heads up stream, bringing up those who lag, jumping 
often on their backs, and walking from one to another; now 
standing up on an ox, now sitting at ease upon him, now dash- 
ing down or up for a straggler, and seeming to be as much in 
their element as the buffaloes themselves. 



J 



CURIOSITY OF NATIVES TODDY. 85 

It has often been veiy amusing to see the consternation or the 
curiosity of the peojile, many of whom have never seen a white 
man betbre. Even the dogs set uj) an unusual barking ; but the 
fiercest of them run, if I ste]) a moment. I Jiave sometimes put 
to partial flight a herd of buffaloes, to whom my white face and 
white di-ess ai-e as terrific as to the dogs. As I sit to eat in the 
boat, a range of women and chilch-en often squat on the ground 
to gaze. If I go towai-d them, they generally vanish. Often, 
on entering a house among the Karens, on some of my tours, 
tlie whole family would rmi away, and leave me m sole posses- 
sion. Many times, as I walk along the bank, and, by tinning a 
coi-ner, come suddenly upon yomig girls drawing water, they in- 
stantly leave their pots and fly. To those who are too old to 
feel terror, I am generally an object of curiosity. They turn up 
my pantaloons, admire the seamless stockings, feel under my 
vest, and wonder that we should wear so many garments. 
Sometimes they call me a nat. I am constantly stiuck with their 
politeness. They desist from any thuig on the slightest intima- 
tion ; never crowd around to be troublesome ; and ifj on showing 
my watch, pencil-case, or any thing which jiarticularly attracts 
them, there are more than can get a sight, the outer ones stand 
aloof, or keep seated, and thus wait till tlieir turn comes, or, as 
is oftener the case, when I have not time to wait, forego the 
sight altogether, without any signs of turbulence. 

After passing Paghan, the palmyi'a is very common. This is 
the species of palm which here yields the toddy, and is therefore 
called by foreigners toddy-tree. To many of them, slight perpen- 
dicular ladders are fastened, by which the owner ascends every 
morning to obtain the sap from a cut made for the purpose. But 
the reguliu- climbers want no such aid. They tie their feet to- 
gether, about six inches apart, and thus can apply tiie soles of each 
loot to the tree. Locking their fingers together, they clasp the 
trunk with their ai'ms, and thus ascend with rapidity and ease. 
The sap or toddy is generally drank immediately, when it is sweet 
and wholesome, or made into sugar, which resembles that ob- 
tained with us from the maple. When suffered to stand four or 
five hours, it ferments, and becomes more intoxicating than wine ; 
but is rarely used in this state by Bui'mans, and almost never to 
the point of intoxication. From Paghan to Ava, this species 
of palm is very abundant, and produces a large amount of jaggery, 
which sells for two thirds of a cent, our money, per i)ound. 

July, 5th, 1836, brought us in sight of the "golden city," after a 
voyage of three weeks. The distance is about 400 miles, by 



86 BURMAH. 

my computation, though it is generally made 500. Since leaving 
the Delta, it has seldom rained, and only in warm and transient 
showers. We had some perils, at one tune having the mast and 
sail cari'ied away in a squall, and several times rolling heavily 
in rough places, so as to dip water on both sides. We were 
never without apprehensions of robbers, who always infest the 
river more or less. Several times, wlien we had moored for the 
night, the chief of the village came to assm'e us that many bad 
men lived m that neighborhood, and that we could not be sate 
without moving farther to where many boats might be Ijing, or 
a village. On several occasions, suspicious boats hovered round, 
which my men affirmed were robbers, but I was never attacked. 

Thus a voyage in which I expected only discomfort and peril, 
has been performed with safety, and many conveniences. How 
foolish ai'e uncomfortable anticipations, while we have reason to 
tliink we are ui the path of duty ! 

On the way up, we have visited and distributed tracts in 
eighty-two towns, cities, and villages ; supplied 657 boats and 
vessels, many contauiuig families, and from fifteen to thirty men ; 
beside handuig them, in a nniltitude of cases, to jjersons along 
shore. Generally, we moored before siuidown at some village, 
where the assistants would divide themselves, and, getting two 
or three congi'egations, spend the evening in preacliing and dis- 
cussions. In general, the tracts were received with the utmost 
avidity, and those who got one Avould otleu clamor for another. 
Scores waded or swam to the boat after tliem ; and often we were 
so thronged with applicants, when moored to the shore, that we 
could scai'cely eat or sleep. But this fact is far froin proving a 
general desire among the people for the knowledge of the new 
religion. A ti'act is in every respect a curiosity. They have 
never seen such paper, theii* own books bemg made of palm-leaf) 
or black pasteboard, which is written upon with a steatite pencil. 
The printing!; is a great curiosity. The shape of the book is a 
curiosity. Besides, it is property, and no Burinan will refuse a 
gift, without a sU-ong reason. 




Buiman Oz Cait. 



87 



CHAPTER V. 

Ava — Splendid Kyoungs — Pagodas — Priests — Palace — Population- 
Arts — Prices — The Mek-a-ra Prince — Mea-wa-de Woon-gyee — 
The Buriiian Pontiff— Sur-ra-wa Prince — Climate of Ava — Flisto- 
ry of tlie Mission in Ava — Roman Catholics — Sagaing — Marble 
Quarries — Mengoon Pagoda — Coral strands — Take leave of Bur- 
mah. 

IVIt Stay in Ava amounted to four weeks. The concerns of 
the mission, and the acquisition of information respecting the 
country and its tributaries, occupied, of course, all business hours. 
Daily habits of active exercise, however, gave me an opportunity 
of making such observations on the city and vicinity as naturally 
find a place in the diary of a traveller. 

The name of the city is Ang-wa, or Awa, pronounced by 
Europeans Ava, a term which they sometimes apply also to the 




(inan(t Plot of Ara. 



kingdom. The city is suiTounded by a wall twenty feet high, 
embracing a space of about seven miles in circumference. 
Within this is a considerable area, enclosed by a better wall, 
with a broad, deep ditch, called " the little city." This space is 
chiefly occupied by the pa'ace, hall of justice, counci'-house, and 
the dwellings of some of the nobility, but contains also soTiie 
well-built streets, and many inhabitants. The palace itselfj and 
public buildings, are enclosed in a tliird wall, which is itself en- 



closed in a stockade. A very lai'ge i)art of the city is outside of 
all these walls, on the margin of the rivers. On the east is tlie 
river Myet-nga, or Little River, a fine stream, a hundred and fifty 
yards broad, extending far into the interior. Tlie L'rawaddy, 
opposite the city, is without islands, and compressed to a breadtli 
of eleven or twelve hundi-ed yaids. 

The sacred edifices, as usual, aie the prominent objects, which, 
on every side, seize the attention. They are almost as numerous 
as at Paghan, and some of them of equal size. Viewed from the 
river above, then- white and gilded spires give the city an exceed- 
uigly imjiosing appearance, which is not realized on entering it. 

1 shall not attempt muuite details respecting these edifices ; 
but Ava has little else to describe. Here are no hosjiitals, 
prisons, schools, societies, factories, &c., whose princijdes or 
modes would aid the philantlu-opist, or throw light on Burmau 
character ; no literatm-e, nor literary men, to describe ; nor even 
sects whose opinions, practices, numbers, &c. might be usefully 
traced. I will tiy, however, to give my reader some fuitlier 
ideas of Ava- 

One of my fu-st visits was to Bong-jeaw, a kyoung or monas- 
tei^y built by the present king. Tliere are three separate houses, 
each as large as a common church, connected by galleries, and 
occupying a noble enclosui'e m the midst of the city. The roofs 
have of course the royal and sacred peculiai'ity of successive 
stages, one above another. Eveiy i)ait, except the very tiles, is 
richly carved in bass-relief, and covered with gold. Every inch 
of surface in the ulterior, except the floor, is similai'ly carved and 
gilded. The effect is dazzling, but rather childish than sublime. 
We found the pong-hee, ra-han, or president, in a vast apartment, 
with lofty ceiling supported by many pillars, reclining on the 
fioor near the principal image, with his couch, books, ^vriting 
apparatus, betel-box, &c. by his side. He was modest, sensible, 
and frank, utterly unlike the great majority of his brethren, so 
fai' as I have hitherto known them. He conversed freely for 
half an hour, and seemed much pleased with our visit. While 
we were there, a young priest came and worshipped him, pre- 
cisely as the idol is worshipped, and, on going away, presented 
an offering of flowers, which he took in his hand, and laid on a 
vase near hun, which was already piled with flowers, apparently 
received tlie same way. 

I aftei-wards inspected several other kyoungs, quite as splendid. 
Certainly none but the monarch himself has so splendid a 
dwelling as the priests. 



PAGODAS I'RIESTS. 89 

The pagodas are even more various in their shapes than at Pa- 
ghan, and far sui-pass in taste and beauty any I have seen. Most 
of them are over one hundi'ed feet high, and some more tlian 
two hundred. Of one of^ them I made a di-awing, which will be 
given in another place. Colossal images of bell-metal, marble, 
and brick, covered with stucco, are innumerable. One which 
had just been finished out of a solid block of white marble, is 
truly stupendous. I had no mode of taking his vast proportions, 
but measured his hand, and found the breadth twenty inches. As 
his proportions were just, this would make his height, had he 
been in a standing posture, about thu-ty-five feet ! 

It is said there are m the city twenty thousand priests, including 
novitiates ; and the number and size of the monasteries seem to 
sanction the computation. The queen's monasteiy has five hun- 
dred ; and that which I have described above had tliree hundred 
regular priests, and about the same number of novitiates. It 
should be remembered, they are in fact colleges, and neaily all 
who are receiving a regulai* education are in them as novices. 

These buildings are found in almost every part of the city, 
enclosed by fine brick walls and shady walks. They are the 
only specimens of beauty and grandeur which the city can boast, 
except the pagodas, the palace, and a few zayats. Ai-istocratic 
feeluigs pi'evail even in these abodes of pretended sanctity ; and 
into some of them, none but youth of the higher classes are ad- 
mitted. A number of our disciples, who have been novitiates, 
speak unfavorably of the morals of the priesthood. Dressed like 
other citizens, they may go any where after dark without being 
recognized. 

The palace is entirely of wood. It consists of nearly a hun- 
dred buildings, of different sizes, and occupies a space about a 
quarter of a mile long, and almost as broad. The roofs all have 
the royal order of ai-chitecture. The hall of audience is in a 
sumptuous and convenient building, standuig on a terrace of 
stone and mortar, which constitutes the floor, and is coated witli 
stucco, hard and polished. Lofty pillars, richly carved, support 
the roofj and, like the rest of the building, are covered with gold. 
The roof rises like a steeple, with many stages, and is a hun- 
dred and nmety-five feet high. 

In looking at such buildings, or at the numerous boats of his 
majesty and the nobility, of which every part, and even the oars, 
are covered with gold, one wonders whence all this wealth is de- 
rived, and is distressed that it should be so absurdly bestowed. 

The money expended in pagodas, kyoungs, temples, and gold and 

4* 



90 BCRMAH. 

silver bawbles, would fill the country with canals, bridges, and 
durable houses. 

The streets of Ava cross each other at right angles, and are 
wide, straight, and clean, but not paved. The centre is kept 
smooth and clean for foot-passengers, while the sides are appro- 
priated to wheel-can-iages, elephants, &c. Much of the labor of 
ti'ansportation is done by bullock carts. Their bodies are framed 
of timber, with bamboo yoke, and the wheels of wood, without 
tire. (See page 86.) I saw no horses used for draught ; but hand- 
some bullock carriages are used by the wealthy. They are with- 
out seats, of course, and the floor is nicely matted or cushioned. 
The animals, being used only for this pm-pose, trot along quite 
briskly. Ai'omid their necks are strings of bells. The houses 




Bxirmaa Gentleman's Carriac^e. 



are not generally better than in other large towns, but, thatch 
being entirely prohibited, they look more respectable. The 
roofs are covered with short pieces of bamboo, so arranged 
as to look exactly like shingles. Great men generally live in the 
centre of some squai-e, surrounded by the houses of their many 
retainers. Most of them have a good brick building, of two or 
three rooms, intended not for occupancy, but as a fire-proof 
depositoi-y for their valuables. These have very lately become 
common, and with some fine brick monasteries just erected, and 
a sort of arsenal now in progress, indicate a general introduction 
of brick houses. Nothing but the absurd prohibition of the 
government has prevented this long ago. In some of these en- 
closures are pleasant gai'dens and fruit-trees. 

As to the population of the city, I ^vas at much pains to obtain 
con'ect information. The accounts obtained from government 
officers did not difier much from each other. They said a cen- 



POPULATION ARTS. 91 

BUS was recently taken, which gave 30,000 houses for the city 
and suburbs, without including any adjacent villages, and that 
ten per cent, ought to be added ibr omissions. They com- 
puted seven persons to a house, and thus make the population 
200,000. As the government actually receives taxes on 30,000 
houses, there does not seem room for estimating the number 
lower; but I am confident it must include the district. Mr. 
Crawfurd allows only 30,000. A severe fire occurred just be- 
fore my arrival, which was reported by the proper officers to 
the king, as having destroyed 1,000 houses, beside huts and 
temporary residences. I examined the ground carefully, and 
compared it with the rest of the city, over all of which I rode, 
repeatedly. The result of the whole induces me to estimate the 
population of Ava at about 100,000. The whole city and king- 
dom being divided into tens of houses, under an officer, and 
every ten of these officers being under a superior, who has charge 
of them and their hundred houses, a census, at least under the 
very eye of government, must be tolerably correct. Taxes are 
assessed on families as such, without regard to wealth. The 
head man is the tax-gathei-er. If he can tax one hundred houses, 
and report only ninety, he puts the balance into his pocket A 
Burman census is thus almost always less than the truth. 

The city abounds with shops, containing nearly every article 
of foreign goods, and an amj)le number of mechanics; though in 
some particular branches there are none. I purchased speci- 
mens of carpentry, jewehy, tin-ware, toys, das, lackered boxes, 
earthen-ware, gongs, &c., which were highly creditable to their 
skill. Their boat-building, carving, sculpture, gilding, basket- 
making, and weaving, are as good and ingenious as in America, 
for aught I could see, making due allowance for the differences 
of form, &c., established by national custom. I got some paint- 
ings executed in their best style by native aitists, one of whom is 
the king's painter, which are about eqtial to the pictures on com- 
mon clocks and looking-glasses. In landscapes they fail utterly, 
having no idea of perspective. Many of our ti-ades are wholly 
unkno\vn to the Burmans. 

The market is abundantly supplied with fruits, vegetables, and 
fresh fish, of various excellent kinds. Beef and veal are gener- 
ally to be had, but not every day. Fowls are much dearer than 
at Rangoon, costing, generally, a tical (about 50 cents) for four. 
Rice is also nearly double the price which it bears at Rangoon. 
Wages ai'e five ticals ($2,50) a month for men, or four annas 
Q2-ic.) per day ; the laborer finding his own food. 



Having seen much of humble life, in retired villages, and 
among individuals of this class, with whom I am constantly 
coming in contact, I was glad to multiply opportunities of 
noting the condition and manners of the great. My second visit 
of this kmd was to the widow of the governor of the city, who so 
greatly befriended Mrs. Judson in her trials here diu'ing the late 
war. She was surrounded by retainers, and had as visitors at 
her house some distinguished females ; but, except in the costly 
jewels about her person, and various valuables in her coon-box, 
was not to be distinguished from common people. Her house, 
in America, would have been deemed the abode of poverty. 
She was glad to see one who had been personally acquainted 
with Mrs. J., and several times remarked that she had always 
loved her as a daughter. She listens respectfully to religious 
subjects, but does not appear to be shaken in her attachment 
to Boodhism. 

My next visit of the kind was to the Mek-a-ra prince, son of 
the late king, and uncle to the present one. He is grandson to 
the famous Alompra, and is said to bear a remarkable family 
likeness to that monarch and his descendants. He received ua 
with great urbanity, and readily gave me information on various 
points, for which I had prepared myself with questions. My 
having been the intimate friend of Dr. Price, whose memory 
he cherishes with very affectionate respect, seemed of itself a 
passport to his regard. 

He is much the most literaiy Burman in the kingdom. He 
reads English, is a good mathematician, is well acquainted with 
geography, and has considerable mechanical ingenuity. Li his 
library are a number of good English books, among which is a 
complete set of Rees's Cyclopfedia. He has also various instru- 
ments, models, &c. Witlial, Burman-like, he is an alchemist 
Matliematics is his favorite science, and he rejects every thing 
which cannot be demonstrated like a problem. I carried for my 
present* some small charts, exhibiting a condensed view of lan- 
guages and their classification, governments and their condition, 
heights of mountains, lengths of rivers, &c., with which he ex- 
pressed himself pleased, and upon which he asked Mr. Kincaid 
many questions, indicating both an excellent intellect and exten 
sive information. He gave me minutely the last census, and his 
own opinion respecting the amoimt of population, voluntarily 

* In all visits to the principal men, it is expected that a person when 
first introduced will make an oflering. Indeed it is common under any 
circumstances. 



VISITS TO THE GREAT. 93 

writing for me the items on tlie spot He is said to be remai-k- 
ably free from national prejudices. A slight evidence of this oc- 
curred noAV. We all (Messrs. Kincaid, Simons, and myself) sat 
on the floor, of course, on a rug which was laid down for our ac- 
commodation ; and I was pretty comfortable, with my back against 
a post; But one of my feet was before me ; and his wife pointed the 
attention of a servant to that fact. The prince instantly forbade 
that I should be disturbed, and begged me to sit in any posture 
which 1 found most convenient. Sitting with the feet towards 
another is considered particularly disrespectful, and a Burman 
would hardly dare, for the price of his head, to take such an atti- 
tude before one of the royal family. 1 have since learned to sit a 
la mode, i. e. with my feet behind me, on one side, or crossed in 
front, as a tailor. 

Though far from being a bigoted Boodhist, the prince, with all 
his reading, seems to be decidedly attached to that system. Mr. 
Kincaid gave him Gallaudet's book, on the soul, just issued from 
our press at Maulmain, translated by Mrs. Bennett. He received 
it with pleasure, but said he could not believe it, unless it proved 
the matter clearly, by makuig it just as plain as that two and two 
make four. I told him it presented a different kind of evidence, and 
endeavored to explain the difference between a mathematical 
and a moral ceitamty. But it was all in vain, till I begged him 
just to take his pencil, and prove to me, by figures, that he was 
not a dead man ! He looked perfectly nonplused for a moment, 
then burst into a laugh, and seemed by further explanations to 
get the idea. He promised to read the book with earnest atten- 
tion, and, on taking leave, begged Mr. Kincaid would bring me 
again. 

Under the auspices of Colonel Burney, I had a very pleasant 
interview with the Mea-wa-de woon-gyee. He has long been 
chief woon-gyee, or prime minister, though much of his power is 
engrossed by Sal6 Men, the queen's brothei". The venerable old 
man, whose comitenance is very fine, received us veiy kindly, 
and with evident pleasure. Colonel Burney had told him that I 
had visited various parts of Europe, and he is veiy fond of 
hearing of foreign countries. He spoke of the great distance of 
America, and, taking up his circular coon-box, pointed out accu- 
rately, as on a globe, the relative positions of Burmah, America, 
England, &c. He added, however, perhaps on account of his 
retainers present, " Our system has a Myenmo mount,* and puts 
your countiy so and so." In accepting my presents, he said he 

* See chapter on Burman religion. 



94 BURMA H. 

knew not what to give ns Americans and English, for we seemed 
to have eveiy thing ah-eady ; and neither he nor any other 
sent me any thing. Producing a gilded casket, he exliibited, 
apparently in corroboiation of his remark, various handsome 
articles, chiefly of English manufacture, which had been given 
him ; among the rest, a watch presented by the famous General 
Bandula, just before the contest with the British, in which he 
lost his life. There was also his Tsal-o-ay, which he handed us 
to mspect, and then wore during the rest of the interview. He 
spoke of our country with much approbation, and expressed a 
strong desire that we should open commercial relations. It was 
replied that their present restrictions on exports disabled our 
vessels from selling their cargoes ; that if specie and rice were 
alloAved to be ex^torted, they could pick up what little lac, ivory, 
&c. there might be in the market, and, selling the rest of their 
goods for rice or specie, proceed elsewhere to complete their 
homewai'd cargo ; but he could not see the propriety of sending 
away rice or specie. The wisdom and candor manifested on 
several topics which came up, encouraged me to lay before him 
the oppressive conduct of the rulers at Rangoon, and especially 
at Maubee, towai-d the missionaries and disciples. He declared 
himself entirely ignorant of these transactions, and much dis- 
pleased, I remarked, among other things, that he knew the 
Karens had no religion ; that their conversion threw no slur on 
the state religion ; that Christianity must make better subjects 
of these wild and uncivilized people ; and that in our countiy en- 
tire freedom of religious opinions was allowed without injuryl 
He assented fully, and said, if 1 would have a full statement of the 
case written and laid before him, he would sift it to the bottom, 
and effectually prevent the repetition of such acts. This was 
accordingly done afterward through Colonel Burney. 

This woon-gyee was a poor boy, and has risen, chiefly by his 
ovni merit, through many grades of oflice, to his present premier- 
ship ; thus furnishing a strong exemplification of a peculiarity 
in this government, resembling a boasted trait in our own. No 
offices or titles here ai-e hereditary but the kingship. 

Dm'ing the visit, two Shyan Chobwaus came in, and gave me 
an opportunity of extending my information respecting routes 
to China. These men are, in point of fact, kings, at home, but 
they approached the minister with the greatest deference. They 
were waited on by the late Burman governor of Bamoo, another 
of the routes by which I am seeking to ascertain the accessible- 
ness of China. 



VISITS TO THE GREAT. 95 

A visit to the Tlia-then-a-])}'ng', or supreme pontifi' of the 
empire, was less pleasant. [ was not surprised; mucli less 
disjileased. lie, of course, saw in me a patron mid strengtheuer 
of the mission — an object he naturally abhors. He afterward 
gave as a sort of excuse tor his resei-ve, that we did not slieeko at 
our entrance. If this was really his difficulty, it adds a proof to 
many I have had akeady, of the excessive pride of these priests. 
His monastery was as si)lendid as Burmans know how to make 
it ; cai-ved and gilded in eveiy part, within and without. 

The Sur-ra-wa pruice, to whom Mr. Kiucaid next introduced 
me, received me with the greatest m'banity. He is the only full 
brother of the present king, a few years younger, and is more 
likely to succeed him than the proper heir apparent.* He is said 
exactly to resemble the king, and certainly there could scarcely 
be a more intelligent and maidy countenance. The Alompra 
forehead, which distinguishes this family, slopes backwai'd some- 
what too rapidly for a good head, but is high, and has great 
breadth. When speaking, his coiuitenance is lighted up with 
great animation. Though less literaiy than his uncle, the Mekara 
prince, he is considered more talented, and to possess more 
general information. He spoke in high terms of our countiy, 
and acknowledged the impolicy of the restrictions on exports, 
and other imi)ediments at Ilangoon. In remarking on various 
countries and their mstitutions, he showed not only an enlight- 
ened, but a reflective and strong mind. Respecting the tribes 
between here and China, he gave me much valuable inibrmation. 
The object of my visit to the golden city beuig explained to him, 
I expressed much satisfaction, in finding our missionaries here 
fully protected and enjoying all the rights of citizenship. He 
immediately drew a comparison between the hberal usages of 
this country, in receiving and protecting all foreigners, and the 
policy of China, in excluding them ; invited me to place teach- 
ers in the adjacent cities ; and recommended me to travel in the 
interior, and see more of the countiy. 

During the intei-view, his lady was inti'oduced, with a lovely 
infant, two or three years old; and nothing occurred to indicate 
that odious haughtiness which so generally attaches to men of 
his rank in the East On taking leave, he mvited us to visit his 
garden next day, wliich we did ; for I deem a garden a test of 
civilization. We found a large space, perhaps an acre, well laid 
out, with raised brick foot-paths, plastered, and resembling stone. 
Marble tanks, artificial ponds, with gold and crimson fish, numer- 

* He ascended the tlironC; on the death of )iis brotlicr, in 1837. 



96 BURMA H. 

ous water-courses and reservoiis, and several men engaged in 
drawing water iioin wells, showed how much attention to irriga- 
tion is necessary to a garden at Ava. lie had the peach, apple, 
coft'ee, fig, and many other foreign fruits, beside the varieties of 
luscious ones which are native. In an adjacent enclosure he 
had wild animals and some singular birds, perfectly gentle, and 
going at large. On the whole, it was a tasteful and pleasing spot. 
Men of rank, in this city, generally have such gardens, on which 
tliey bestow great expense. I visited one or two others, which 
had handsome zayats in them, where the owner reposed some- 
times as in a summer-house, or received his intimate friends. 

Not to multiitly accounts of visits to great men, it will be 
enough to remark that I found all, to whom I Avas introduced, 
intelligent and affable. Having read of them as gorgeously 
arrayed on days of state ceremony, I was disajjpointed to find 
them dressed precisely like other men, i. e. with waist-clotli and 
turban only. These, however, were of the best materials. If it 
was the cool of the day, they wore also the en-gy, or muslin coat. 
Their dwellings now are temporary buildings, outside of the 
city wall, and are, in fact, mere shanties. By what is, perhaps, a 
necessai-y precaution, in such a government, when the king goes 
out of the city, all the nobles must go out also, and stay out till 
he returns. He is now residing at his water-palace, so called — 
a collection of wooden houses, one stoiy high, between the city 
wall and the water. 

During my whole visit here, Colonel Burney was in the habit 
of sending to me the distinguished persons who called upon 
him, who could give me information, from their own knowledge, 
of the tribes between this city and China. Among others was 
the lately famous Dupha Gam, who rules the largest part of the 
Singphoos. He came with a sera-dau-gyee, or chief secretary, 
and rode a horse richly caparisoned. The skirts of the saddle 
were circular, a yard in diameter, and completely gilded. In 
other respects, he had no marks of a prmce but his intelligence. 
Among other inquiries, I asked if he would protect Christian 
teachers, and suffer them to give books, if we sent some to his 
tribe. He assured me that he would, and that all quiet foreign- 
ers were secure in any part of his dommious. Beside a small 
present of penknife, scissors, &c., he accepted a copy of the 
New Testament, an assortment of tracts, and a map of the 
world, lately lithographed by the missionaries, with the names in 
the Bm-man language. Mr. Kuicaid endeavored to impress on 
his mind some leading truths of religion. 



CLIMATE OF AVA. 97 

Beside the information gained from such persons, it was no 
small advantage to have tlie populace, who followed them, see 
the mission thus noticed by great men, and see then- numerous 
retmue going away with our books and tracts in their hands. 
The influence of such a sight can only be reahzed by those who 
have seen the profound respect paid by Orientals to persons in 
authority. 

The climate of Ava, most of the year, is delightful. The cool 
season lasts from the middle of October to the early part of 
April. During this period, heavy fogs prevail early in the morn- 
ing, but they soon disperse, and leave a sunny sky. The ther- 
mometer at night, and toward morning, descends to 45° or 50°; 
sometimes, though very rai-ely, to 40° ; rising in the middle of 
the day to 60° or 70°. Toward the end of April, it begins to be 
hot, and the last of that month, and whole of May, ai-e the trymg 
portion of the year. The thermometer ranges from 85° to 100°, 
rising sometimes even to 110°, in a fair exposm-e at mid-day; 
but it is always many degrees cooler at night. About the 1st of 
June, some dashes of rain occur ; the sky is always cloudy, and 
the periodical inundation of the river spreads vast sheets of 
water over the low gromids. These, Avith the south-west mon- 
soon, which rarely intermits, spread a cool freshness on every 
side. The present is the rainy season on the coast, and on 
the mountains north of Ava, but around the city it rai'ely rains ; 
m some years, so little as to cut off all crops, and create almost a 
famine. It was dmnng this period that my time was spent in 
Ava, and more delicious weather could not be. The thermome- 
ter has not been above 93°, and rarely above 87°. The average at 
mid-day has been about 83° or 84°. Before morning, I always find 
it necessary to di-aw over me a flannel sheet. The river is 
now from thirty to forty feet above its common level. About 
the middle of August, the waters begin to subside ; the clouds 
are less dense ; and for a short time very hot weather returns, but 
not so oppressive as in May. The cool season then sets in, as 
above mentioned. The river owes its rise not so much to rain in 
the upper country, as to the rapid melting of the snow on the 
lofly mountams comiected with the Himalaya range, where the 
IiTawaddy rises, in common with the Kyendween, Burampooter, 
and great Camboja rivers. 

Missionary eflTorts were begun in this city by Messrs. Judson 
and Price in 1822 ; but Mr. Judson very soon returned to Ran- 
goon. Immediately on rejoining Mr. Price, with Mrs. Judson, in 



03 BURMAH. 

1824, the war broke out, during which the missionaries were 
called not to act for Christ, but to suft'er. At tlie close of the war, 
Mr. Judson proceeded to Anilierst. Thus scai-cely any thuig 
was done to create a general knowledge of Christianity, or to 
convert individuals ; Dr. Price being chiefly engrossed with his 
medical profession, and a school of noblemen's children. He 
was, however, a faithful and laborious man, so far as his bodily 
strength, wasted by a slow consumption, would permit. He 
preached to his ret<iiners, and such as would come to his house, 
every Sabbath, and impressed religion on many with whom he 
came in daily contact, but never went among the common people 
as an evangelist. Had he lived to complete the education of the 
youth intrusted to him, he would have done an incalculable ser- 
vice to the countiy. He had obtained permission to cany sev- 
eral of them to Calcutta, to finish theu" studies at Sei'ampore : 
and, though worn down by disease, could not be dissuaded from 
making it tlie last effort of his life. In spite of weakness, which 
confined him almost constantly to his bed, he finished all his 
aiTangements, and the day of sailmg anived. He arose and 
di'essed as usual. But, though he could disregard debility, he 
could not escape death. On that morning, his attendants, having 
left liim for a short time, returning, foimd him dead in his chair ! 
The British resident has since tried in vaiii to obtain anotlier set 
of youths to go to Calcutta for education. 

No conversion occurred at Ava, nor indeed can the mission be 
regarded as fairly begun, till the aiTival of Mr. Kincaid, in Jime, 
1833. He had been in the coimtiy since November, 1830, and had 
so far acquired the language, as to be able to pray and expound a 
little, but had not attempted to deliver regular discourses. He 
took a large quantity of tracts and books, of which he gave away 
17,000 on the way up : this was the first general distribution 
made on the river. A house was obtained ; preaching was kept 
up regulai-ly on the Sabbath, and eveiy week evening ; and Ko 
Shoon and Ko Sanlone, excellent assistants from Maulmain, oc- 
cupied public zayats, and taught from house to house. The 
fii'st convert was Mali Nwa Oo, wife of a disciple whom Dr 
Price had bi-ought with him from Rangoon. She, with another, 
was baptized in October of the same year. Since then, twelve 
others have been received into the church ; all Burmans but one, 
an Indo-Briton. Mr. Kincaid's published journals make any fur- 
ther histoiy of this station unnecessary, except to say, that in 
September, 1835, Mr. Simons joined the station, and has been 



PllESENT STATK Of THE MISSION. 9§" 

employed chiefly in teaching school, and giving tracts to such as 
came to the house. He has not yet so far acquired the language 
as to preach, or communicate much with tlie natives. 

The present aspect of the station is full of encouragement. 
Mr. Kmcaid is completely at home in the language, and the na- 
tive assistants, among v^^hom is Ko Shoon again for a season, are 
laboriously engaged. Beside these, Ko Gwa, tlie deacon, a wise 
and valuable old man, is emj^loyed much of his time very usefully 
in private conversation tlu-ough the city. He had charge of the 
late king's bearers, amomiting to several hundi-ed men, and 
possesses not only a large acquaintance, but some influence. 
Two or three of the other members ai-e of very respectable 
worldly standing, and tlnee young men give promise of becom- 
ing useful in the ministiy. They are studying English, geog- 
raphy, &c. at the mission-house, under Mrs. Simons, and two of 
them will probably join the school at Tavoy. 

All the disciples except two who reside fortj miles off", and 
one who is often kept away in attendance upon his sister, a maid 
of honor in the palace, are regulai-ly at worship eveiy Sunday, 
and attend the concert of prayer, and such other meetings aa 
may be appointed. 

Ava is a great centre, to which persons resort from eveiy pait 
of Burmah and its tributary states. Many of these come to the 
mission for books, not so much to heai- about " tlie new religion," 
as to see white foreigners, especially ladies. Except Mrs. Jud- 
son, (who, of course, was little seen abroad during the war, and, 
as the governor's widow stated, pai-t of the time wore the full 
Burman costume, to avoid molestation,) no white female has ever 
been seen here, till the establishment of the British Residency. 
There they dare not go to satisfy their curiosity, and they flock 
to the mission-house, for the ostensible purpose of obtaining a 
tract. During my stay, thei-e were always some in the house, 
often a complete tlu-ong, stai-ing at every thing, feelmg every 
thing, wondering at eveiy thing. Often, when their attention 
is secured for a moment to divine truth, they begin to feel 
your hands, or examine the mtricacies of your raiment, or the 
joints of yom- table, and you perceive your words are lost upon 
them. Sometimes they seem absorbejj with wonder at the tract 
you have given them, and, in trJ^ng to find out how it is put to- 
gether, pull it to pieces before yom* eyes. Many have heard that 
Mr. Kincaid has globes and an on*eiy, and come avowedly to 
see those. Our mode of eating is an especial marvel ; and we 
generally have many spectators in the room, or at the door. 



100 BURMAH. 

Such facts, together with those I have already meutioned in rela- 
tion to ti-acts, must be remembered by the friends of missions at 
home, lest they make very erroneous inferences from the naked 
statements of missionaiy journals. 

It has been mferred from these, that persons have come hun- 
dreds of miles for a tract, or to hear of Christ, from its being sta- 
ted, that a person from such or such a distant point came for 
tracts, &c. ; whereas the person, being at the station on other busi- 
ness, came as a matter of curiosity. It has been inferred, too, that 
a general spirit of inquiry has been excited throughout the empire. 
Alas ! the veiy contraiy is the fact. In general, tracts are received 
more cordially at fii'st than ever afterward ; and often, on visiting 
a village a second or third time, few will accept a tract at all. A 
writer in America has stated that " whole villages have been con- 
verted mito God." There has been no such event. Two Chris- 
tian villages have been formed by collecting converted Karens 
•together, and others may yet be formed ; but, as a general meas- 
ure, it is deemed unsafe and undesirable. The gi-eat stumbling- 
block with Burmans, as with those to whom apostles preached, 
is "Chiist crucified." They cannot get the idea of an eternal 
God ; and that Christ was a vutn seems to put him on a footing 
with Gaudama- They brmg up the fact of his being " born of 
a vu'gin," just as infidels do. Thus that glorious doctrine, 
which, to such of tliem as come to feel the power and guilt of 
sin, is the sweet theme that fills their heart with peace, is, to the 
multitude, the " hard saying," which they cannot beai*. 

Neai' Ava ai-e eight or nine hundred Catholics, chiefly the de- 
scendants of French and other prisoners, brought by Alompra 
from Syi-ia)i, at his conquest of that place m 1756. They are 
settled in six small villages, the chief of which is Kyun-ta-yuah, 
which has one hmidi'ed houses. In 1784, two priests were sent 
by the Propaganda. The troubles of Europe prevented their re- 
ceiving any remittances for thirty years ; but their scanty wants 
were supplied by then* poor flock, and by the practice of medi- 
cine. They were quiet, literary men, and much respected. 
One died in 1823, and the other in 1832. Their places have been 
supplied by young priests from Italy. 1 cannot fuid that here, 
or elsewhere hi Burmah,»the Catholics make much effort to 
gain converts to the Christian faith ; and, though half a century 
has elapsed since the arrival of the fu-st missionaries, they have 
never given their people any portion of the Scriptiu-es in their 
vernacular. The service is in Latin, of course ; but such as 
preach, do so in Burman. These Catholics live and dress just as 



I 



BURM^H. 201 

Other Burmans, and are only to be distinguished fioiii thoin I)y 
iJieir deeper poverty and grosser immorality. 

A visit to Sagaiiig, opposite to Ava, and once the metropolis, 
gave me not only an opportunity of noting wJiat my official duly 
required, but of visiting the tomb of Dr. Price. 'I'he intimacy 
that subsisted between us, and the fine jjoints in liis character, 
came vividly before me as 1 walked over the lallen walls of his 
tUvelling, or in his garden in ruins, 

" And still where many a garden-flower grows wild," 

or under the huge tamarinds which shaded iiis walks. 'Twas a 
dark day for Burmah whiiu he died ! The Lord lias blessed his 
memory by the conversion of his two sons, now in America. 
May they become aj)ostles lor IJurmah ! 

The jiopulation of Sagaing is jierhaj)S 50,000, and the small 
district or townshij) belonging to it about 80,000 more. There 
seems to be no obstacle to the immediate settlement of a mis- 
sionary, except that we have no one familiar with the language 
who can be spared. Many Chinese reside here, who read tracts 
and IJibles in their own language. The lew we have been able 
to distribute in this vicinity, lor a few months past, have been 
most gratefully received, and sundi^ individuals, in applying lor 
others, have proved they had been attentively read. 

In several respects, this city is a more eligible location for our 
mission tlian Avfu The view which is here given * was taken 
from Mr. Kincaid's door in Ava. The great abimdance of fruit- 
trees which are allowed to occupy every vacant s[)ot, conceals 
the houses, and makes the picture resemble a chamj)ain country, 
rather than a great city. In this very thing, however, it conveys 
a correct idea of Burman cities and towns in general. On the 
extreme right is seen, dimly because of the <listance, the famous 
Schway-kyet-yr;t, mentioned on a subsecpient page;. 

Three miles north-west of the city are the cpiarries of statuary 
marble from which most of the stone images of (Jaudama 
iire made. It is also used for water-sj)oiits, and other jiurposes 
about sacred edifices, and shines conspicuously round all the jta- 
godas in this part of the countiy, in the polished claws and grin- 
ning teeth of the huge lions (so called) which guard the i)re- 
cincts. The real lion is unknown in Burmah, and these images, 
whicli, though of all sizes, are perfectly alike, are the most 
atrocious caricatures of the king of beasts. A picture of one 
is given in the chapter on Burman religion. 



* See Engraving opposite. 



102 



MENGOON PAGODA KING S BOAT. 



From eight to fifteen miles f'aitlier north is a region resem- 
bling the " licks " of our western country, where vast quantities 
of salt are made. 

Five miles south-west from Sagaing, and about a mile from the 
great manufactory of idols, is the Kyoung-moo-dau-gyee pagoda, 
famous for its size. Its shape is precisely like a thimble, one 
liundred and seventy feet high, and one thousand feet in circum- 
ference at the base. It looks, m ascending the river, like a little 
mountain. An inscription within the enclosure gives the date of 
its erection, which corresponds to our A. D. 1626. 

The Mengoon pagoda, above Umerapoora, would be vastly 
larger if finished, surpassing some of the pjTamids of Egypt. 
When not more than half advanced, the king grew so cool to- 
ward Boodhism, and had so exliausted his means and the liber- 
ality of the nobles, that he abandoned the undertaking. His 
Brahminical astrologers furnished him an excellent pretext by 
giving out that so soon as finished he would die, and the dynasty 
be changed. The lions wei'e finished, and though uitended, of 
com-se, to bear the usual proportion to the size of the edifice, they 
ai'e ninety feet high. A huge bell was also cast for it, stated, m 
the thirty-fifth volume of the authorized Burman History or 
Chronicles, to weigh 55,500 viss (about 200,000 lbs.) ; but the 
chief woon-gyee declared to me that its weight was 88,000 viss. 




On the way to Umerapoora, we saw the royal barges, a draw- 
ing of one of which is given above, and visited the pagodas 



BURMA II. 103 

and zayats of Sliway-kyet-yot, or "the scratch of the golden 
fowl." The group stands on a bluff jutting into the river, oppo- 
site the range of hills back of Sagaing, which terminate at the 
shore. The whole is now in fine order, some having been lately 
re-coated with stucco, and the whole fresh whitewashed. It 
forms the most beautiful object from Ava, resembhng, at that 
distance, a noble palace of white marble. 

Here Gaudama wears a form not given to him elsewhere, 1 
believe, except in pauitings, viz. that of a cock. The legend is 
that, when he was in that form of existence, he was king of all 
fowls, and, passing that place, he scratched there ! Hence the 
sanctity of the spot, and hence the noble structures which dis- 
tinguish it! The face of the stone cocks which ornament the 
niches, is somewhat human, the bill being brought up to his 
eyes, like a huge hooked nose. In the zayats at this cool and 
delightful retreat, commanding the best view of Ava, and much 
of the river above and below, we found a number of well-dressed 
men reposing on clean mats. 

The immediate cognizance of the king secures this part of 
the empire from many of the severe oppressions, under which 
more distant sections constantly groan ; and tends in several 
other ways to increase its comparative population. It is, be- 
yond doubt, the most densely mhabited part of the kingdom. 
Those whom I deemed best able to inform me, stated that within 
a radius of twenty miles, there must be at least half a million 
of people. 

On the third of August, 1836, came the sad adieu to the kind 
friends in Ava, who for a month had lefl nothing untried to make 
my stay pleasant, and aid my official duties. To Colonel H. Bur- 
ney, the British resident, I am under many obligations, not only for 
attentions and assistance in the acquisition of information, but 
for personal kindnesses, bestowed in the most delicate manner. 
To him, and scarcely less to Mrs. B., the mission is largely in- 
debted. At Tavo)^, of which province Colonel B. had charge 
some years, they were as parents to the lamented Boardman. At 
Rangoon, where he has occasionally resided, since holding his 
present appointment, they were not less kind to the missionaries, 
even watching them day and night in their sickness. At Ava, our 
brethren and their families not only receive daily and expensive 
kindnesses, but ai-e ever so treated as to give them the highest 
possible estimation among the people. 

The first two days of the descending voyage passed delight- 
fully. My boat, too small for two, is ample for one, and I soon 



104 BURMAH. 

got all my matters nicely adjusted. Secure from inteiTuption, 
aiid being alone, little exposed to distraction, it was encouraging 
to be able to get to work in good earnest, to arrange and digest 
the hoard of memorandums gained during the past busy month. 
It creates, too, something like a feeling of home to be, any where, 
"monarch of all you sui-vey," and to be surrounded by none but 
such as you may command ; and especiallj', there is satisfaction 
in reviewing your steps alter an errand is pleasantly accomplished. 
With all these advantages, the river, now fortj' feet above its com- 
mon level, bore me along at the rate of four miles an hour, and 
so loftily, that I could see over the countiy far and near ; the 
banks being but a foot or two above the flood. Instead of being 
dragged along by ropes, under a sultry bank, seeing only such 
houses and trees as stood on the brink, or, if under sail, " hug- 
ging the shore," to avoid the current, we now swept gallajitly 
down the mid stream, higher from the top of the boat than 
the level ceuntiy, and seeing the noble hills to their very base. 
The whole landscape, refreshed by occasional rams, presents, at 
this season, scenes which ai-e not surpassed on the RhLue, or on 
our own more beautiful Connecticut, 

7th. Alas ! a traveller has little cause to give patience a furlough 
because he gets a visit from pleasure. Here I am, the fourth day 
of the trip, moored not " under the lee," but alongside of a 
sandy island, just enough " a-lee " to get a constant diizzle of 
sand upon every thing, and into every thing, and not enough to 
shelter us from the huge waves that render it impossible to do 
any thing, while the wind has full sweep at me, and will not 
suffer a paper to lie in its place. The men have done their best 
to " keep moving ; " but the wind defies both oai's and tide. Yes- 
terday we had much ado to make headway against it, and it 
])robably will not alter much, as it is the midst of the monsoon. 
It, however, generally subsides before night, and we must catch 
our chances. If my Master be not in haste to get me to Ran- 
goon, why should I be ? My eyes, partly from over-use, and 
partly from the glare upon the water, have become bad again ; 
and as there is no one to speak to, 1 am ensconced here, deprived 
of book, pen, and conversation. If this order of things should 
continue, I shall soon have a satiety of my lordly lonesomeness. 

August 13. Through divine goodness, I am now in sight 
of Rangoon, having made the passage in eleven days, without 
accident. For the sake of expedition, I floated a good deal in the 
night, as the wind then always subsided, and we made better 
progress than in the daytime with sLx oars. But the boatmen 



RETURN TO RANGOON. 105 

were sadly uneasy at doing so, and we were constantly assailed 
by accounts of recent roliberies and murders. At one village, we 
found in the house of the head-man several persons who had 
that afternoon been robbed of their boat, and all it contained. 
Frequently, as we passed a village, the officers would call out 
that we must wait for other boats and proceed in company. 
Sometimes they would take a boat, and come out to compel 
me to stop, saying that, if I was murdered or robbed, they might 
have to answer for it with their heads. I always answered that 
I must proceed ; and, making them some little presents, they would 
desist. On several occasions, they had no sooner left me, and it 
was perceived along shore that I was going on, than a little fleet 
of boats would put oflT, and I went abundantly escorted. They 
had all probably been detained for the same reasons, and, sup- 
posing me well ai'med, as foreigners always are, were glad of 
my protection. 

What a wretched government is this, which, while it taxes and 
burdens the people to the very utmost, gi-ants them, in return, no 
security for person or property ! Hence the huddling together in 
little wretched villages. A Burman with any thing to lose would 
not dare to live on a fai-m even one mile from a village. No such 
case probably exists in the empire. The very poorest, and the 
Karens, who are always very poor, venture to live in villages of 
three or four houses in the jungle, and cultivate patches of rice. 
The people at large live in the bondage of constant fear. Not 
only is thieving common, but robbing by bands. Thirty or fifty 
men, well armed and disguised, surround a house, while a de- 
tachment plunders it, and permit no one to go to their aid. On 
the rivers, robberies are even more frequent, as the chance of de- 
tection is less. We have scarcely a missionaiy family that has 
not been robbed. So much was said, by some of my kind Eng- 
lish fi'iends in Rangoon, of the folly and danger of going un- 
armed, as I had hitherto done, and of the imputations which 
would be cast upon them, if they suffered me to go in this man- 
ner, that I consented to borrow a pair of pistols and a bag of 
cartridges. I never opened my bag of cartridges till to-day, when, 
seeing alligators along shore, and desirous to see if they were as 
impenetrable as travellers assei-t, 1 went to my bag, but found they 
were all musket cartridges, and not one would go in ! 

The region between Kyouk Phyoo and Akyab is an extensive 
and yet unexploi-ed aichipelago of small liilly islands, for the 



106 BURMAH. 

most pail uninhabited. In winding among these, instead of put- 
ting out to sea, the scenery, though wild, is often very fine — 

" An orient panorama, glowing, grand, 
Strange to the eye of Poesy ; vast depths 
Of jungle sliade; the wild immensity 
Of forests, rank witli plenitude, where trees 
Foreign to song display their mighty forms. 
And clothe themselves with all the pomp of blossom." 

Lawson. 
The shores for the most part are coral. Specimens of great 
size and beauty, wliite, yellow, red, and black, are gathered here. 
To walk on " coral strands" was not less new to me than to see 
beautiful shells, such as are on mantel-pieces at home, moving 
over the moist sand, in every direction, each borne by its little 
tenant. The study of conchology has long seemed to nie to bear 
about the same relation to the animal kingdom, that the study of 
the coats of luiknown races of men would be to the luiman 
family. But to see the creatures in their robes ; to watch them as 
they sought their food, or fled to their holes at my approach ; to 
mark what they ate, how they made their holes, and how, when 
overtaken, they drew all in, and seemed dead ; how they moved, 
and how they saw, &c., was delightful. I felt myself gazing at a 
new page in nature's vast volume. I rejoiced that my God is so 
wise, so kind, so great, and that one day I should read his works 
" in fairer worlds on high." 

Some of these shells resembled large snails, but of beautiful 
colors ; others, still larger, and more elegant, were of the shape 
used for snuff-boxes ; others were spiral cones, five or six inches 
diameter at the base. Each had claws, which it put forth on 
each side, and walked as a tortoise, but much faster. When 
alarmed, the head and claws were drawn inward so far as to 
make the shell seem empty. As my ignorance of conchology 
prevented my distinguishing common from rare specimens, 1 re- 
frained from encumbering my luggage with either shells or coral. 
The forest was too thick and tangled to allow us to penetrate 
many yards from shore, except where there were villages. Re- 
cent tiger tracks, too, achnonished us not to attempt it Alas I 
liere is a fine country, with but one fortieth of the land inhabited ; 
and the forests thus lefl render the climate injurious to the few 
who remain. Such are the bitter fruits of war. War has made 
this wilderness, where there might have been a garden, and given 
back the homes of men to beasts of prey. 



1 



DEPARTURE FROM BURMAH. 107 

Leaving the shores of Bumiah, probably forever, inflicted on 
me no small pain. The dear list of names who compose our 
band of laborers there seemed before me as the shore re- 
ceded. Personal intercom"se had been rendered endearijig by 
intimacy, by mutual prayers, by ofiicial ties, by the kindest atten- 
tions, by a common object of life, and by similarity of hopes for 
the world to come. To part forever could not but wring my 
heart. 

" 'Tis sad to part, e'en with the thought 

That we shall meet again ; 

For then it is that we are taught, 

A lesson with deep sorrow fraught, 

How firmly, silently, is wrought 

Affection's viewless chain. 

Long ere that hour, we may have known 

The bondage of the heart ; 
But, as uprooting winds alone 
Disclose how deep the tree has grown, 
How much they love is only known 

When those who love must part." 

Happy I am to be able to bear solemn and decided testimony 
to the purity, zeal, and economy of our missionaries and their 
wives. I have no where seen persons more devoted to their 
work, or more suitable for it. No where in all Burmah have 
I seen " missionaiy palaces," or an idle, pampered, or selfish 
missionary. As to the female missionaries, 1 am confident that, if 
they were all at home this day, and the churches were to choose 
again, they could not select better. 1 bear testimony that what has 
been printed respecting the state and progress of the mission is 
strictly true ; though 1 found that the infei-ences which 1 and 
others had drawn from these accounts were exaggerated. Every 
thing I have seen and heard has tended to satisfy me of the practi- 
cability and usefidness of our enterpi-ise, and to excite lamentation 
that we prosecute it at so feeble a rate. 

Divine approbation evidently rests upon every part of the 
undertaking. The life of Judson has been spared so long, that 
we have a translation of the whole Bible, and several tracts, 
more perfect than can be fomid in ahnost any other mission. 
We have neai-ly a thousand converts, beside all those who 
have died in the faith; and sixty or seventy native assistants, 
some of them men of considerable religious attainments. A 
general knowledge of Christianity has been difilised through 



103 BURMA M. 

some large sections of the empire. Several of the younger 
inissionaries are now so far advanced in the language, as to be 
just ready to enter on evangelical labors. Very extensive print- 
ing operations are now established, producing about two millions 
of pages per month; and the whole aspect of the mission is 
liigiily encouraging. 

The little churches gathered from among the heathen added 
much to the sense of bereavement inflicted by this parting. The 
faces of the preachers and prominent members had become 
familiar to me. With some of them I had journeyed many weary 
miles. Through them I had addressed the heathen, and distrib- 
uted the word of God. To some of them 1 had endeavored to 
impart important theological truths. 1 had heard them pray and 
preacli in their own tongue to listening audiences. 1 had marked 
their behavior in secret, and in hours of peril. Not to love them 
would be impossible. To i)art from them for life, without pain, 
is equally impossible. 3Iay it but prove salutary to myself! 

The consciousness of a thousand imperfections in the dis- 
charge of my duty, forms the princijjal trial. Still there has been 
good devised, and good begun, and evil checked, and plans ma- 
tured, which I trust will be fomid m the great day among the 
things which perish not. 




A Statue, tuch as guard the Gales of Burman Temples. 



i 



109 



PART II. 

DIGESTED NOTES ON THE 
BUR MAN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER I. 



Tne Term India — Hither and Farther India — Boundaries of Burniah^ 
History of the Empire — War with the British — Dismeinbermeul of the 
Tenasseriin Provinces • 

Before passing to other countries, I will here insert the 
result of my observations and inquiries respecting the natural, 
moral, political, and religious state of* the coiuitry. 

The term India, seems to be derived from the Greeks, Vi^ho ap- 
plied it to the vast regions beyond the river Indus, to them almost 
unknown. It is never given to any part of this region by the 
natives themselves. Both Darius and Alexander pushed their 
conquests beyond this famed river, though not so far as the 
Ganges; and from the officers employed m these expeditions, 
the first historians seem to have derived all their accounts. 
When the country, some centuries aflei'ward, came to be better 
known, it was divided by Ptolemy (A. D. 150) into " Hither and 
Farther India ;" making the Ganges the boundary. This distinc- 
tion is still observed, and seems exceedingly proper. "Hither 
India" is but another name for Hindustan, including the whole 
peninsula between the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, and ex- 
tending northward to Persia and Thibet. " Farther India," or 
India beyond the Ganges, embraces Burmah, Asam, Munnipore, 
Siam, Camboja, and Cochin-China ; or, to speak more compre- 
liensively, all the region between China and the Bay of Bengal, 
southward of the Thibet Mountains. 

The term " Chin-India," which has been lately given to tliis 



110 BURMAII. 

region, seems to have no propriety, and creates confusion. 
Maite-Brun increases this confusion by inventing the name 
" Indian Archipelago," embracing Ceylon, the Laccadives, 3Ial- 
dives, Andaman's, Nicobars, Moluccas, Philippines, Borneo, 
Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and all their minor neighbors, I'his 
name is adopted by some other writers, but w^ith very different 
boundaries. Crawfurd, in his History of the Indian Archipelago, 
limits it thus: — From the western end of Sumatra, to the parallel 
of the Aroe Islands, and from the parallel of 11° south to 19"^ 
north, omitting the islands of the Bay of Bengal. Of the coun- 
tiies which compose Farther India, Burmah is the most important, 
and in all India, is second only to China. The natives call their 
countiy Myamma in their writings, and in common parlance, 
Byam-ma, which is spelled Bram-ma, of which foreigners make 
Burmah. The Chinese call the countiy Meen-teen. It included, 
before the late war with England, what were formerly the king- 
doms of Ava (or Burmah Proper), Cassay, Arracan, Pegu, Tavoy, 
Tenasserim, and the extensive territoiy of the Shyans, extending 
from Thibet on the north to Siam on the south, and from the 
Bay of Bengal on the west to China on the east. This territory 
is about one thousand and twenty miles long, and six hundred 
broad. It now includes Burmali Proper, the greater part of Pegu, 
a small part of Cassay, and nearly all the Shyan tei'ritoiy. The 
extreme length of the kingdom is seven hundred and twenty 
miles, and the extreme breadth about four hundi'ed. 

The rest of Cassay is now independent; while ^Irracan and 
the Tenasserim provinces, embracing a territory of about forty 
thousand square miles, now belong to the British. 

Innumerable fables, foimded on a wild chronology, make up 
the Burman history of the origin of their nation ; which they 
throw back several millions of years! The earliest probable 
date in this stupendous chronology is the epoch of Anjina, the 
gi-andfather of Gaudama, which corresponds to the yeai* 691 
B. C. In the sixty-eighth year of that epoch, or before Christ 
623, Gaudama was born. From that period their tables seem 
worthy of regard, and are certainly kept with great appearance of 
accuracy. There is, however, nothing in them that demands a 
place here. 

The seat of government can be traced back to Pi-ome, which 
seems to have been founded in the year B. C. 443. About this 
time, the Boodhist religion is supposed to have been introduced. 
Prome continued to be the metropolis three hundred and ninety- 
five years, when the government was removed to Pa-ghan, where it 



HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE. Ill 

continued neai-lj' twelve centnries. During this period was es- 
tablished their common vulgar era, the commencement of which 
corresponds to A. D. 039.* About A. D. 1300. the government 
was removed to Panya, and soon afterward to Sa-gaing. Both 
these cities were destroyed by the Sliyans in 1363, under their king 
Tho-ken-bwa, in revejige for liis father's being given up to the 
Ciiinese, after having fled to the Burman court for protection. 

About 1526, the Shyans from the region of Mogoung invaded 
Burmah, put the king to death, overran the coimtry as far as 
Prome, and for nineteen years reigned at Ava over these acquisi- 
tions. The Burmans then recovered their old boundary. The 
dynasty at this time seems to have been Peguan. 

About A. D. 1546, the more hardy natives of the highlands 
threw ofFallegiance to this dynasty, and established one of their 
own families on the throne. Pegu, however, was never regarded 
as a conquered province, but remained identified with the 
northern districts. Soon after this, the territory of the Shyans 
was concjuered, and the kingdom began to assume a consequence 
it had never possessed before. It was, however, much less ex- 
tensive than now. In 1567, the Burmans, aided by Laos or 
Shyan tributaries, conquered Siam, and held that country in sub- 
jection for thiity years. It afterwards regained its independence ; 
but a deep-rooted enmity remained between the two nations, and 
war frequently recun-ed. 

About the year 1740, the Peguans, gathering a strong faction 
in Prome and Martaban, raised the standard of revolution. For 
twelve years, a ferocious and obstinate civil Avar distressed the 
comitry. At length, being aided by the Portuguese, the Peguans 
pushed then- conquests to the metrojiolis, which surrendered at 
discretion. Dweep-dee, the king, was made prisoner, and a 
southern king once more assumed the throne. But a year had 
scarcely elapsed, before Alompra, (moi-e properly spelled Aloung 
Pra,) the courageous chief of Moke-so-bo,f gathering a few in- 
trepid adherents, commenced a resistance which issued in a rev- 
olution. After some minor successes, his counti-ymen flocked to 
his standard, and marching to Ava, that city fell into liis hands. 
Extraordinary courage, prudence, and wisdom, marked liis move- 
ments ; success every where followed ; and, after a sanguinary 
war of several years, Peguan authority was once more subverted, 
and has never since been ascendant. 

* April, 1838, was the commencement of tlieir year 1200. 
t A small village, twelve miles north of Ava, and the same distance back 
from the river. 



112 BURMAH. 

Alonipra, of course, retained his preeminence, and took pos- 
session of tlie throne he had estabhshed. Proceeding in his 
successful career, he attacked Munipore or Cassay, and reduced 
to complete subjection the Shyans. With scarcely any cause, he 
attacked and conquered Tavoy, then an independent kingdom. 
The Tavoyers, however, instigated by Siam, who was jealous of 
her growing neighbor, revolted, and were aided by many Peguans 
and Siamese. Alompra soon crushed the rebellion, and advan- 
cing against Siam, uivested Mergui by sea and land. It soon sub- 
mitted, and with it the ancient city of Tenasserim. 

After restuig and refreshing his army at the latter place, and 
effectually reducing the entu'e province, he passed through the 
whole length of Siam, and invested its capital. This was on the 
point of yielduig, which without doubt would have been followed 
by liis annexuig the whole country to his dominions, when he 
was seized with violent illness, and died in a few days, aged fifty 
years. The fact was concealed from the army, which broke up 
its camp in good order, and returned without much molestation. 
On arriving at Martaban, in his own dominions, then a great city, 
the sad disclosure was made, and the funeral rites took place. 
Siam has never recovered the provmce of Mergui. 

Alompra was succeeded by his eldest son, Nam-do-gyee-pra, 
who made Sagaing again the capital, but reigned only four years. 
His death brought to the throne Shen-bu-yen, the next younger 
brother. He removed the capital again to Ava, and reigned 
twelve years with considerable eclat, though he was regarded as 
a profligate prince. He invaded and conquered Cassay, sup- 
pressed a revolt among the Shyans, and added to his Shyan domin- 
ions the region of Zemmai. In 1767, the Chinese, elated with their 
recent conquests in Bukharia, seemed resolved to annex Burmah 
to then* already vast empire. An immense army crossed the 
frontier, and, after a few skirmishes, approached the capital ; but 
after being reduced to extremity for want of provisions, they 
were routed in a pitched battle, and so many made prisoners that 
few escaped to report the disaster. A second army shared a 
similar fate, and the two countries have since lived in peace. 

On application of the Shyans at Zandapori for aid against the 
Siamese, the Bm-man king sent a large army into Siam, which 
reduced the country to great straits, and again took Ayut'hia, tlie 
then capital. The Siamese give a horrid description of the 
conduct of the conquerors, though not unlike other histories of 
Eastern warfare. Plunder and slaves seem to have been the 
chief objects ; and, in getting the former, every atrocity seems to 



HISTORY OF THE EJIPIRE. 113 

have been committed. Shenl)uyen prepared, in 1771, another 
expedition against Siam, which failed in consequence of disaffec- 
tion in the army, a large part of which was raised in Martaban 
and Tavoy. 

Shenbuyen died in 1776. He was succeeded by his son Shen- 
gu-za, who, after a reign of five years, was assassinated in a 
nautiuy of his officers. These placed on the tin-one Moung- 
moung, sometimes called Paon-go-za* from the place of his resi- 
dence, son of Namdogyee. This man was almost an idiot; but, 
liaving been brought up by this faction, and being thoroughly 
under then* influence, was deemed a fit tool for their ambitious 
projects. But he was too imbecile, and his party too discordant, 
to resist the aspiring energies of Men-der-a-gyee, fourth son of 
Alompra, who now claimed the throne of his fathei*. Moung- 
moung was seized and imprisoned, and, on the eleventh day of 
his reign, was publicly dro^vned, in conformity to the Burman 
mode of executing membei's of the royal family. Forty of the 
late king's wives, with all their childi-en, were placed in a separate 
building, and blown up with gunpowder. With many other cru- 
elties he confu-med himself in the kingdom. 

Meuderagyeef was in the forty-fourth year of his age (A. D. 
1782) when he found himself seated on the throne of his distin- 
guished father. He soon detected several conspiracies — one by 
a general m the army, who was put to deatli ; another, by a de- 
scendant of the former dynasty, was near proving successful. 
This last effort having originated at Panya, he put every soul of 
that city to death, destroying the houses and obliterating every 
trace of its existence. His reign lasted thu-ty-seven years, dur- 
ing which the country remained in a high state of prosperity. 
He founded the city of Umerapoora, six miles farther up the river, 
and transferred to it the seat of government. In 1783, he added 
Arracau to his already extensive dominions. In 1786, renewing 
the old feud with Siam, he contended for the provinces of Tavoy 
and Mergui, which had revolted under the patronage of the 
Siamese. This war continued till 1793, when he finally suc- 

* It is exceedingly difficult to ascertain tlie private names of Burman 
sovereigns. It is considered presumptuous and indecorous in any subject to 
call the king by his youthful name. Indeed, most persons change the name in 
growing up. It was often inquired what my name was when a child, and 
great surprise exhibited to find that it remained undianged. 

t " Gyee " is the term for Great, and " Pra " is Lord, or an object of rever- 
ence. The expression Great Lord is thus a general term for royalty, like 
Pharaoh, or CeS'ir. but has been appropriated to this monarch. 
5* 



114 ~ BDRMAH. 

ceeded, and the provinces continued to be a part of Burmah till 
given up to the British at the close of the late war. The Siamese, 
however, several times made irruptions into these provinces, held 
tliem a few weeks, and retired with what spoil and captives they 
could cany away. In 1810, he fitted out a respectable armament 
to take Junk Ceylon from the Siamese, and for a time held pos- 
session. But the enemy soon mustered a formidable force, and 
compelled the Burmans to surrender. On this occasion, some of 
the chiefs were barbarously beheaded, and others earned to Ban- 
kok to work in chains, where Crawfurd saw some of them so em- 
ployed in 1822. 

This monai-ch seems at first to have been inclined to be re- 
ligious, or at least to have suffered strong compunctions for the 
violent and murderous manner in which he came to the throne. 
In the second year of his reign, he built the costly temple called 
Aong-mye-lo-ka, at Sagaing, and gave it four hundred and forty 
slaves. He studied the Bedagat, consorted much with priests, 
built various religious structures, and commenced the stupendous 
pagoda at Mengoon, which, if finished, would equal in size some 
of the Egyptian pyramids. At length he knew so much of the 
books and the priests as to overthrow all his piety, and exasperate 
him against the whole system of popular religious belief. He 
built and gave gifts no more. The immense edifice at Mengoon 
was left unfinished on the pretext that the Brahminical astrolo- 
gers predicted his death as soon as it should be completed — a 
decision obtamed probably by himself. He proclaimed the 
priests to be utterly ignorant, idle, and luxurious, reprobated their 
fine houses, and finally issued an edict expelling them all from 
their sumptuous abodes, and requiruig them to live according to 
their neglected rules, or return to labor. For a long time, there 
was scarcely a priest to be seen ; but, falling into his dotage, and 
dying soon after, in his eighty-first year, thmgs reverted to their 
former order, and they now are as numerous as ever. 

The throne was ascended, in 1819, by Nim-sun, (literally, " he 
enjoys a palace,") grandson to Menderagyee. His father had 
long been heir apparent, and was eminently loved and revered 
by the people, but died before the throne became vacant. The 
king immediately adopted Nmisim as his successor, to the ex- 
clusion of his own sons. The kingdom had now become exten- 
sive and powerful, embracing not only Ava and Pegu, but Tavoy, 
Tenasserim, Arracan, and Munipore. Cacliar, Assam, Jyntea, 
and part of Lao, were added by Nunsun. 

He was mairied in early life to a daughter of his uncle, the 



HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE. 115 

Mekara prince ; but one of his inferior wives, daughter of a 
comparatively humble officer, early acquired gi-eat ascendency 
over his mind, and, on his coming to the throne, was publicly 
crowned by his side. On the sauie day, the proper queen was 
sent out of the palace, and now lives in obscurity. His plans for 
securing tlie succession show that he was aware that even the 
late king's will would not secure him from powerful opposition. 
The kiiig's death was kept secret for some days, and the intei"val 
employed to station a multitude of adherents in different parts 
of the city, to prevent any gatherings. On announcing the de- 
mise, the ceremony of burning was forthwith performed in the 
palace-yard, at which he appeai-ed as king, with the queen by 
his side, under the white umbrella, and at once took upon him- 
self all the functions of royalty. Several suspected princes wei-e 
soon after executed, and many others deprived of all their es- 
tates. Some of the latter still live at Ava, subsisting by daily la- 
bor. The Mekara prince, his uncle, either became or feigned to 
be insane, and his papers showing no indications of his havmg 
interfered in politics, he was spared. He became rational two 
years afterwai'd, and has smce devoted himself to literature. My 
interview with this prince is mentioned page 102. Two years 
after his accession, the king resolved to restore the seat of 
government to Ava. To this he was induced partly from the 
great superiority of the latter location, partly from the devastation 
of a fire which burnt a great part of Umerapoora, with the 
principal public buildings, partly from a desu-e to erect a more 
splendid palace, and partly (perhaps not least) from the ill omen 
of a vulture lighting on the royal spire. The greater part of his 
time, for two years, was spent at Ava iu temporaiy buildings, 
superintending in person the erection of a palace, twice the size 
of the old one, and other important buildings. During this 
period, many citizens, especially those who had been burnt out, 
and numbers of the court, settled in the new city, and the place 
became populous. On completing the palace, (February, 1824,) 
tlie king retm-ned to Umerapoora, and, after brilliant parting 
festivities, came from thence, with great jjomp and ceremony, 
attended by the various governors, Chobwaus, and highest offi- 
cers. The procession, in which the white elephant, decorated 
with gold and gems, was conspicuous, displayed the glories of 
the kingdom, and great rejoicings pervaded all ranks. Umera- 
poora still retained a numerous population, which even at this 
time is supposed to equal that of Ava. • 



116 BURMAH. 

It was but a few weeks after this festival that news arrived of 
a declaration of war by the East India Company, and that their 
troo])s were already in possession of Rangoon. Difficulties on 
the Chittagong frontiers had been increasing with that govern- 
ment for twentj'-five years, in regard to numerous emigrants from 
Kui'mah, whose leaders were averse to the present government, 
and even laid some claims to the throne. They had been in the 
practice of making predatory incursions into Arracan, and retir- 
ing to the British side, where Burman troops were not allowed to 
follow. Some decisive measures of the emperor had recently 
ripened the quarrel, and the government of British India deemed 
it proper to proceed to open war. 

The court of Ava leai-ued the fall of Rangoon with surprise, 
but without alarm. So confident were they of capturing the en- 
tii*e British army that the only fear was that they might precipi- 
tately retire ! Many of the ladies at court actually stipulated 
with the field-officers for a number of white slaves, and the ai'my, 
collecting to proceed to Rangoon, manifested the most exuberant 
spirits. 

There were three English gentlemen at Ava, who naturally 
fell under suspicion ; es})ecially when it was discovered that 
some of them had been apprized of the declaration of war. 
They were all imprisoned, and together with Messrs. Judson and 
Price, who were soon added to the number, experienced for 
many months the excessive hardships which are detailed in the 
Memoir of Mrs. Judson. 

Calculating on friendly cooperation from the Peguans, who, it 
was thought, would embrace this opportunity to throw off the 
Burman yoke, and knowing that the best period for rapidly as- 
cending the river is during the south-west monsoon, the British 
forces arrived May 10th, 1824, just tlie beginning of the rains. 
But the innumerable boats ordinarily found on the river had all 
disappeared, partly perhaj)s by order of the viceroy, and partly 
from fear. The boats of the transports were as nothing toward 
conveying an army, and it became necessary to halt in Rangoon. 
But even this was well nigh fatal to the army. The city had 
been so comi)letely evacuated by the affrighted people, that not a 
soul was left but a few aged and helpless persons, who either 
could not fly, or had nothing to lose. There were, of course, no 
servants, no bazar, no provisions. Sick officers in vain offered 
five or six rupees for a single fowl, and the whole army was 
obliged to depend on ship stores. This, with the nature of the 



STATE OF THE SUCCESSION. 117 

season, and the fatigue of frequent skirmishes, produced sickness 
among the troops, and some thousands were cut off befbie any 
advance was made. After the lapse of nearly a jear, the army 
proceeded up the river, receiving but one serious cJieck, and re- 
tired, June, 1825, into barracks at Prome for the hot season. On 
the third of November, hostihties recommenced. Melloon was 
stormed on the 19th of January, 1826, and Paghan on the 9th of 
Februaiy. On the 24th of February, a treaty of peace was 
formed at Yan-da-bo, and on tlie 8th of March, the army took 
boats for llangoon. 

By this treaty, the Burmans rehuquished part of Martaban, and 
the whole of Arracan, Yeh, Tavoy, and Mergui ; and agreed to 
pay the English 5,000,000 dollars toward defraying the expenses 
of the war. At the same time, Asam and Munipore were 
taken from them, and the latter declared independent, under 
British protection. 

From that time, the kingdom has been rather advancing in 
civilization and prosperity. No longer at hberty to make war 
upon its neighbors, its frontier is quiet and secure. Acquainted 
better with foreigners, its pi'ide is abated, and beneficial innova- 
tions are less resisted. The government, though unaltered in its 
model, is in some respects better administered, and commerce is 
increased. 

The king, subject to periods of insanity, had little to do with 
public affairs for several years. The chief power was in the 
hands of the ISalley-men, or prince of Sailey, the queen's broth- 
er, generally called Men-Sa-gyee, or great prince. He was 
the richest man m the kingdom, Sallay being one of the most 
lucrative fiefs; in addition to which he receives the duties on the 
Chuiese inland trade, beside large presents from office-seekers, 
and litigants in the Lotdau. 

Several mdividuals are regarded as candidates for the crown 
3n the demise of the present king. One of them is the Men- 
Sa-gyee above mentioned, who is a devoted Boodhist He may 
prefer to espouse the cause of the present king's yoiuigest brother, 
the Men-dong prince, who is maiTied to his daughter. Another 
candidate is the Ser-a-wa prince, the king's brother, next in age, 
an accomplished and talented prince, remarkably free from preju- 
dice for a Burman, and probably better acquainted with foreign 
countries than any other native. As he keeps a large number of 
wai'-boats and ai-med retainers, and has a consideral)le magazine 
of ai'ins in his comj)ound, it is generally believed that he asphes 



lis BURMAII. 

to the throne.* No other man in the emjjire is so qualified for 
tliat higli station, so far as the foreigners at Ava are able to judge. 
The proper heir apparent, only son of the present king, is 
popular with the common people, but has almost no power ; the 
queen's brother holding liis place in the Lotdau. Though per- 
mitted the insignia of his rank, he is kept studiously depressed, 
and seeins destitute of either the means or the qualifications for 
making good his title. 

* This prince did, in fact, become king, on the demise of his late majesty, 
in 1837. 




New Pagoda at Ava. 



no 



CHAPTER II. 



Features of Country — Climate — Mountains — Minerals — Rivers — Soil — 
Productions 



The general features of a country so extensive, are, of course, 
widely diversified. It may be said of it, as a whole, in the lan- 
guage of Dr. Francis Hamilton,* that " this country, m fertility, 
beauty, and grandeur of scenery, and in the variety, value, and 
elegance of its natural })roductions, is equalled by few on earth." 
He adds, " It is occupied by a people of great activity and acute- 
ness, possessed of many qualities agreeable to strangers." 

The upper country is mountainous throughout; the highest 
ranges being to the north and north-east of the capital. The 
sceneiy of these elevated regions is beautiful, and the climate 
highly salubrious. Extensive forests, comprising a great variety 
of excellent timber, cover the heights; while the valleys are 
jungle,f cultivated in many places, and abounding in fruit-trees. 
The coasts and water-courses are eminently fertile, and contain 
the chief part of the population. By far the largest portion of 
the country is uninliabited. 

The extensive Delta of the L'rawaddy is for the most part 
scarcely above high tides, and evidently alluvial. Much of it is 
overflowed during the annual rise of tlie river. Rocks are not 
found, except a cellular orange-colored iron ore, which occurs on 
the gentle swells. There are a kw hills composed of the iron 
ore above named, breccia, calcareous sandstone, blue limestone, 
and quartz. In the lower part of the course of the Salwen and 
Dagaing, some of the low mountains are almost entirely quartz. 
Some hills, rising abruptly from the levels, are blue limestone, 
of the very best quality. Li most of these are caves, remarkable 
not only for their natural grandeur, but for the religious venera- 
tion with which they have been regarded, and the multitude of 

* Edinburgh Phil. Journal, vol. ii. p. 99. 

t The difference between a jungle and a forest ought to be understood by 
every reader of Oriental travels. A forest is the same as with us — land cov- 
ered with large trees, growing ihickly together, and almost uninhabited. A 
jungle is exactly what is called, in Scripture, a wilderness ; that is, a region of 
many trees, but scattered, with much undergrowth, and often thickly inhabited, 
though generally somewhat sparsely. The open spaces very generally bear a 
tall, coarse grass, resembling that of our prairies, which, when near villages, 
is annually burnt over, to improve the pasture. 



120 BURMAII. 

mouldering idols which they contain. An account of some of 
them is given in page 61. The great ranges of mountains, both 
on the sea-shore and inland, are chiefly granite and mica-slate. 

The climate of Burmah differs greatly in the higher and lower 
districts, but is everywhere salubrious to natives, where the jungle 
is cleared. Ample proof of this is visible in their robust appearance 
and muscular power. Foreigners find most parts of the sea-coast 
salubrious, to a degree not found in most other parts of India. 

In tlie maritime j)art of the coimtry, there are two seasons — the 
dry and the rainy. The latter begins with great uniformity, about 
the tenth of May, with showers, wliich gradually grow more 
frequent, for four or five weeks. It afterward rains almost daily 
till the middle of Sej)tember, and occasional showers descend 
for a month longer. From one hundred and fit^y to two hun- 
di'ed mches of water fall during this period. This quantity is 
truly astonishing, as in the moist western counties of England, it 
is but sixty inches in a year. It seldom rains all day, so that 
exercise, and out-door business, may be continued, though at 
times it rains almost incessantly for several days. As the sun 
shines out hot almost daily, vegetation proceeds with amazing 
rapidity; and every wall or building not coated smoothly with 
plaster, becomes in a few seasons covered with grass and weeds. 
This is the only period when any part of the country becomes 
unliealthy to foreigners, and even then, the courses of great 
rivers, and parts extensively cleared, remain salubrious. On the 
subsiding of the rains, the air is cool, the country verdant, fruits 
innumerable, and every thing in nature gives delight. The 
thermometer ranges about G0° at sunrise, but rises 12° or 
15° in the middle of the day. In March, it begins to grow 
warm ; but the steady fanning of the north-east monsoon makes 
it always i)leasant, when out-door exertion is not required. In 
April, the heat increases, and becomes for two or three weeks 
o])pressive ; but the first dashes of rain bring relief! 

Between tide-water and the mountain regions at the nortli and 
east, there may be said to be three seasons — the cool, the hot, and 
the rainy. The cool season begins about the same time as in 
the lower provinces, and continues till the last of February, 
making about four months. The thermometer now descends to 
about 40°, at the lowest. This temperature is only just before 
morifuig. In the middle of the day, it is seldom colder than 
60°. The greatest heat is far less than on the Madras coast ; 
averaging, in the hottest weather, from 85 to DO", but riding some- 
times much higher. 



MINERALS METALS, &C. 121 

In the most elevated districts, there are severe waiters ; but of 
those sections no precise accounts have been received. 

Much of Burniah is decidedly inountiiinous, particularly to the 
north and east of Ava; but few of the ranges have names, at 
least not in our language. The natives seem to designate par- 
ticular heights, but not entire ranges ; and Europeans have not 
explored these parts of the country. The barrier which divides 
Burmah from Arracan, called in maps A-nou-pec-too-miou, is 
lofty and well defined. The coast near Tavoy, and the islands 
adjacent, are mountainous. But at present, nothhig mstructive 
can be said as to this feature of the kingdom. 

The mineral riches of the country, though known to be con- 
siderable, have been but scantily developed. Gold is obtained 
from mines in Bamoo, towards the Chinese frontier, and is found 
also, in the shape of dust, in the head waters of all the principal 
streams. It is not obtained in large quantities, probably only 
from want of enterprise and capital ; and a considerable amount 
is annually received over land from China, Nearly the whole is 
used in gilding sacred edifices : the rest goes into jewels, or is 
used to gild the utensils of the great. As currency, it is scarcely 
ever used ; and then only in ingots. 

The principal, if not the only silver-mines, are in Lao, about 
twelve days' journey from Bamoo, where they are wrought by 
Chinese. The estimated produce is about 500,000 dollars per 
annum. About a thousand miners are employed. The contract- 
ors pay government a fixed rent, amountmg to about 25,000 
dollars per annum. 

Emeralds are not found m the countiy, and the diamonds are 
small ; but rubies, reputed to be the finest in the world, are ob- 
tained in considerable quantities, particularly about five or six 
days' journey from Ava, in an east-south-east direction, near the 
villages of Mo-gout and Kyat-pyan. I saw one, for which foui* 
poujids of pure gold were demanded. The king has some 
which are said to weigh from one hundi'ed and twenty to one 
hundred and fifty grains. Sapphires are very abundant, and 
often of surprising size. Some have been obtained, weighing 
from three thousand to nearly four thousand grains. All over 
a certain size being claimed by the crown, very large ones are 
almost always broken by the finders. Jasper, amethyst, chiyso- 
lite, loadstone, noble serpentine, and amber, are also found; 
the two latter in almost unlimited quantity. Noble serpentine 
is obtained chiefly near Mogoung, where, at pai'ticular seasons of 
the year, about a thousand men, Burmans, Laos, Sinkphoos, and 
6 



122 BURMA H, 

Chinese Shyans, are employed in quarrying or mining it out 
Captain Hainiay saw boats laden with it, of which some masses 
required three men to lift tliem. Fi-om foiu* hunched to six 
hundi-ed traders from China annually resort to the mines to piu-- 
chase serpentine. The majority of these are from Santa, but 
most of the wealthier ones come by Banioo. The principal 
amber mines are m and round the Hu-kong valley, on tlie 
Asam frontier. It is very abundant ; but the natives, having nei- 
ther spade nor pickaxe, and using chiefly a sort of sj)eai- made 
of a cane, burnt at the shai'pened end, they accomplish veiy little. 
IMost of it is carried at once to China. 

Iron ore is found m lai-ge quantities, from which the natives 
make suflicient ii'on for the consumption of the country ; but, prob- 
ably from the imperfect mode of smelting, it loses thirty or forty 
per cent in the forge. The principal supply is furnished from 
the great mountain of Poupa, a tew days' journey east of Ava, 
about latitude 21° 2(y. 

Tin is plenty in the Tavoy province, and perhaps elsewhere, 
and has been occasionally got out in considerable quantity ; but 
at present little is done. Resort has been had, almost exclusive- 
ly, to the gravel and sand of water-courses ; and there is little 
doubt but that a projier examination of the hills would show the 
existence of extensive beds of ore. 

Lead is abundant, but is chiefly got out by the Shyans, and 
brought down for barter. It contains always a little silver, about 
three fourths of a rupee in tliirty-five or forty pounds. 

Nitre is found in considerable quantities, incrusted on the sur- 
face of the earth, in several places among the hills north of Ava. 
Probably, through imperfect management, the quantity obtained 
is not suflicient to prevent the importation of a considerable 
amount from Bengal, for the manufacture of gunj)owder. Na- 
tron is obtained in the same districts, and is used for soap. Its 
price is only eight or nine dollars per ton, but it is by no 
means pure. 

Salt exists, in several places, in the upper country. From 
eight to twenty miles north of Sagaing, are mr.ny places resem- 
bling our great "licks" in the western country, and some small 
saline lakes. Large quantities of salt are made by leaching the 
earth, very much as we do ashes, and boiling down the water. 
On the head waters of tlie Kyendween, a large quantity is made 
from springs and wells, the waters of which yield the large pro- 
portion of one twentieth of their weight in salt. 

Sulphur and arsenic are obtained in abundance. The latter 



MIMCRALS. 123 

is for sale in all the bazars in its crude state ; but for what it is 
used, except a little for medicine, I did not learn. 

Petroleum is obtained in great quantities at Yaynan-gyoung, on 
the Irrawaddy, above Prome ; and the supply might be largely 
increased, if there should be a demand. The wells are two 
miles back from the rivei", thickly scattered over a region of 
several miles in extent, remarkable for its barren aspect.* each 
producing a daily average of one hundred and fifty gallons of 
oil, which sells on the spot for three ticals per hundred viss, or 
about forty cents per cwt. The gross annual produce is about 
eighty millions of pounds ; it is carried to every part of the king- 
doin accessible by water, and is used for lights, paying boats, and 
various other purposes. It has the valuable quality of securing 
wood from the attacks of insects. A boat's bottom, kept proper- 
ly in order with it, is about as safe as if co])pered. It is thought 
to be a defence even from white ants. 

At Sagaing, and some other places north of it, are quarries of 
marble, some of which is very fine. It is a primitive limestone, 
of snowy whiteness, semi-translucent, free from all cracks, and 
capable of the highest polish. The almost exclusive use made 
of it, is ui the manufacture of images of Gaudama, and other 
sacred objects. Tliis employs constantly a large number of per- 
sons. Similar marble, but of inferior quality, is found in various 
other places, and is largely used for lime. It is apt to contain 
hornblend and mica, with occasional crystals of feldspar, and to 
be found in connection with pure mica-slate. Limestone pre- 
vails along the whole river. Near the statuarj^ marble quarries, 
it is blue, of the finest quality ; between that place and Paghan, 
it is dark, bituminous, and slaty ; lower down, near Prome, it is 
coarse-grained and sandy. Graywacke is also found, in numerous 
places, from Ava to Rangoon. Steatite is very abundant, and in 
various parts of the kingdom. Pearls, of good quality, are often 
picked up on the coast of IMergui and its islands. Tiiey are not, 
however, fished for, and only such are obtained, as are found in 
shells driven ashore or lying above low-water mark. The pearls 
are small, but of regular form and good color. 

Petrifactions of wood, bones, and even leaves, are common on 
the banks of the Li-awaddy. So far as yet known, they are 
most ninnerous in the region of Yaynan-gyoimg. Crawfurd 
transmitted to England several chests of these. The bones 
proved to 'be of the mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapir, 
hog, ox, deer, antelope, gavial, alligator, emys, and tryonix. 

* See Journal, page 81. 



124 BURMAH. 

Of the mastodon, there are, evidently, two species, and both 
these entirely new, making eight known species of this ex- 
tinct genus. I jjicked up as many as I could transj^ort, and for- 
warded them to tlie Boston Society of Natural History. They 
com])rise fossil bones, and wood, and calcareous concretions 
without any organic nucleus, and resembling the tuberous roots 
of vegetables.* The natives, as might be supposed, attribute 
these petrifactions to the waters of the Lrawaddy ; but this 
must be erroneous. The specimens are washed out of the banks 
by the encroachment of the river, and are found m beds of sand 
and gravel, thiity or forty feet abave the highest floods. The 
matrix adhermg to many of the bones, seems to be quartz and 
jasper pebbles, united by carbonate of lime, and sometimes 
hydi-ate of iron. Logs of wood, which have evidently lain long 
in the river, are not changed. Bones are not found of the ele- 
phant or tiger, both of which are now abundant in the country, 
but of the mammoth, which has been extinct for ages, and of the 
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapir, and gavial, which are no longer 
inhabitants of Burmah. All these reasons conspire to assign 
these fossils to an antediluvian ei}och. Some of the vegetable 
fossils m-e impregnated with carbonate of lime, but most of them 
are silicified in the most beautiful manner, showing perfectly 
the fibres of the plant. The bones are in admirable preserva- 
tion, owing probably to their bemg highly impregnated with 
hydi'ate of u-on. 

Coal of excellent quality, both anthracite and bitummous, has 
been discovered in various places, but has not been brought 
into use. 

The principal river in the empire, and indeed in all Farther 
India, is the trawaddy, which rises in the Nameau Blountains, 
a range south of the Himmalaya, but belonging to that groat 
chain. After a course of twelve hundred miles, it falls into 
the Bay of Bengal, by several mouths, near Cape Nigrais. 
Most of these mouths are navigable lor large craft; those 
of Bassein and Rangoon, for vessels drawing five fathoms. It 
may be ascended as far as Ava, at all seasons, by vessels of two 
himdred tons ; and in the rains they may proceed to Mogoung 
River, a distance of about eight hundred sailing miles from the 
sea. Above this ])oint, in the dry season, it winds along a very 
tortuous channel, at the rate of two miles an hour ; but in its 
inundations, from June to Sej)tember, it rises high, flctws rapidly 

* Similar concretions, often mistaken for petrifactions .aud stalactites, are 
foiuid iu Ausiria, Sardinia, England, aud elsewhere. 



125 



among small islands, and presents a com{)aratively straight course, 
having a breadth of about a mile at Bamoo, and, in some places 
below Ava, from four to six. At Ava, the rise is about thirty- 
three feet. At this time, boats ascend most easily, impelled by 
the south-west monsoon. It is not confined to an annual freshet, 
but, during the monsoon, rises and falls three or tour times. 
On its banks, between Ava and Rangoon, are numerous villages 
and cities, some of them very large. Large villages and towns 
are also established a little back from the ri^er, by which the 
inhabitants avoid many exactions of boat-service, both in peace 
and war. 

The Salwen,-or Martaban River, rises among the same ranges 
which originate the Irrawaddy, the Burampooter, the Meinam, 
and the great Camboja rivers. Li the first part of its course, it is 
called Louk-chang by the Chinese. It has a course of several 
hundred miles, and disembogues by two mouths, one at the north 
of Balu Island, and the other at the south. The northern chan- 
nel, though very vdde, is navigable only for small boats. 

The Kyendween rises 
near the sources of the 
Irrawaddy, and, after wa- 
tering the Kubo valley? 
and passing through some 
of the best and most pop- 
ulous parts of Burmah, 
enters the Lrawaddy 
about fifty miles below 
Ava. As the junction of 
this important river has 
been regularly surveyed 
by Lieutenant Wilcox, I 
give a map of that section 
of the Irrawaddy reduced 
from his. 

The Setang River 
makes, at its mouth, an 
imposing appearance up- 
on the map, being several 
miles wide, but is nearly 
useless for all pui-poses 
of internal communica- 
tion. At low water there is no continuous channel deeper than 
four feet, but various spots give a depth of from ten to fifteen 




Junclion of the Kyendween with the Irrawaddy. 
Scale of 12 milea to an inch. 



126 BURMA 11. 

feet. The tide, compressed by the funnel form of the sliores, and 
collecting the whole force of the flood from a great distance in 
the bay, acquires fearlul velocity. Excej)t at the lowest neaps, 
there is a "bore" on the setting in of the flood, which subjects 
small vessels to the most imminent danger. Some years ago, a 
surveying vessel from Maulmain reported that it had set her in 
a westerly direction at the I'ate of twelve miles an hour ! 

The Myet-ng6, or Little River, enters the Irrawaddy on the 
north side of the city of Ava, and is navigable for large boats to 
a very considerable distance. 

The Mogoung River empties into the Irrawaddy in lat. 24° 57', 
and is boatable for a hundred miles. 

There ai"e some other rivers in the empire, nearly as important ; 
and some fine lakes, but the only good harbors now left to Bur- 
mah, are those of Rangoon and Bassein. 

The soil of the maritime portions of Burmah is perhaps un- 
surpassed in fertility. The inconsiderable fraction wliich is cul- 
tivated, though afl;er a most imperfect manner, yields not only 
abundance of rice for the iidiabitants, but a great amount for ex- 
portation to the upper provinces. The paddy-fields yield gener- 
ally from eighty to one hundred fold, and in some cases, twice that 
amount. 

Farther inland, the country becomes undulating, but is scarce- 
ly less fertile, though for the most part a mere jiuigle. The re- 
gion still farther east and north is mountainous, and bears the 
usual characteristics of such districts. 

There are said to be several deserts of considerable size, but 
they have never been explored. 

Ill this favoi-ed country are found nearly all the valuable trees 
of Farther India ; but while the people are thus supplied with a 
profusion of valuable timber, they are far below tlieir neighbors 
in the case of fruit-trees, and have them generally of an inferior 
quality. 

The reader is referred to the previous editions of this work 
for a copious list of Burman fruits and timbers, such only of 
the fruit trees are retained here as are most important. Per- 
haps no country can furnish such a catalogue of forest and 
fruit trees. 

The scientific names are given, in order that those who 
choose may identify the plant. 

The Da-nyan, or Durean (diirio zebethinus), flourishes in the 
provinces of Tavoyand Mergui,but not elsewhere in the empire. 
The tree is nearly as large as the jack, and the fruit greatly re- 



VEGETABLE PUODL'CTIONS. 



127 



seiiibles it, but is smaller, scarcely attaining the size of a man's 
head. It is esteemed bj' the natives the most delicious fruit in India- 
Europeans are not fond of it luitil after rcj)eated trials. Those 
who persist, always unite with the natives in their preference. 
It contains ten or twelve seeds, as large as pigeons' eggs, which, 
when roasted, are not inferior to chestnuts. It is the most cost- 
ly fruit in Lidia, and is never found propagating itself in a wild 
state. The tree is liigh and spreading, lives a hundred years, 
and produces about two hundred dureans in a year. 

The Bun-ya, Pien-nai, or 
Jack, [artocarpus integrifolia,) 
is thought not to be indige- 
nous, but thrives well in all 
the low er provinces. Its name 
seems to indicate the peninsula 
of Hindustan as its proper 
country, and it certainly is very 
common there. In the Teloo- 
goo language, it is called Jaka. 
It attains to the height of 
eighty or one hundred feet. 
Branches, thick, alternate, and 
spreading ; leaves, veiy dark 
green. The full-grown fruit 
weighs from thirty to fifty 
pounds, growing not from the 
twigs, but, in young trees. 
jacK-T«eandiruit. ^^.^^^^ ^j^^ ^j^j^j^ brauchcs, af- 

terward from the top of the trunk, and, when very aged, from the 
roots. It is covered with a very thick, rough, green skin, and is 
full of Avhite stones, the size of a pullet's egg. Few persons are 
fond of it at first, but by repeated trials soon become so. I found 
it very indigestible. There are two kinds, which, however, do 
not greatly differ. The timber is very valuable, and used for 
musical instruments, cabinet ware, and ornamental work. 

The Managoot, or Mangosteen, (garcinia mangostana,) grows in 
Mergui province, but is not conunon. The tree is low, about the 
size and shape of an apple-tree ; leaves, dark green. It is raised 
from the seed, and bears the seventh yeai'. Some trees yield 
annually from a thousand to two thousand maugosteens. The 
fruit is generally deemed by foreigners the finest m India, and 
uideed in all the world. Foreigners are fond of it from the first. 
It resembles the black walnut in size, and the pomegranate in its 





128 BURMAH. 

exterior. A liull like that of the black walnut is to 1)C removed, 
and the fruit appears white, puii)}', grapelike, about the size of a 
small ])luin, and having one or two very small stones. Its taste 
is mildly acid, and extremely delicate and luscious, without a 
tendency to cloy the appetite ; and almost any quantity may 
be eaten, by most persons, without danger. It seems to have 
been introduced from the Lidiau Aichipelago, and is far from 
attaining in the hands of the Tavoyers the perfection it there 
possesses. 

The ThaiTat, or Thayet, or Mango, [mangifera 
indica,) called by Tavoyers Thwrapee, is one of 
the largest fruit-trees in the world, reaching 
a height of one hundred feet or more, and a 
circumference of twelve or fourteen, sometimes 
even of twenty-five. Branches, tliic^k, spread- 
ing; leaves, long, narrow, smooth, shining; 
flowers, small, white. The fruit is delicious, 
about four inches long, and two wide; thin, 
smooth, greenish skin, and very large, hairy stone. There are as 
many kinds as there are of api)les, and differing about as much 
from each other. The timber is excellent, and is used for 
masts, pestles, mortars, &c. 

The Thimbau, Papaya, or Papau, [canca papaja,) grows to the 
height of fifteen to thirty feet, without branches or leaves, except 
at the top, where the fiuit grows close to the stem. Leaves, 
twenty to thirty inches long. Fruit is of a green color, and close- 
ly resembles a small muskmelon, with round black seeds, which, 
when very young, have the taste of capers. It seems to have 
been introduced by the Portuguese. It comes rapidly to maturi- 
ty in any soil, bears fruit all the year, and is exceedingly prolific. 
It is inferior in flavor to our muskmelons. There are several 
kinds, all highly prized. The sap of this tree is a most deadly 
poison, taken inwardly. The French doctors use it as a medi- 
cine. When exi)osed to the air, it resembles salt. 

The Ong, or Coco-nut, {cocos nucifera,) resembles other palms, 
especially the palmyra or toddy-tree : the leaves are longer. The 
fruit is too well known to need descrij)tion. The envelope or 
husk furnishes a large part of the cordage, called coya or coir, 
which is not suqiasscd in excellence by any other, tliough little 
is made in Burmah. From the nut, an oil of good quality is 
obtained in large quantities, used both in cooking and for light. 
The top of the tree is tapped for toddy by cutting off the end of 
the stem which bears the blossom. It is generally made into 



I 



VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 



129 



sugar, or some is drank fresh. In other countries, arrack is dis- 
tilled from tliis species of toddy. 

The tree is scarce, j)articulurly in tlie upper provinces, and 
ahiiost entirely wanting in Arracan ; so that large quantities are 
iniported from the Nicobar Islands, and elsewhere, which are 
chiefly used in making curiy. For this purpose the whole fruit 
is scraped, and the juice scpieezed out. The pulp is thrown away. 
The Coco-nut tree delights in a sandy soil, and at the same 
time requires to be much watered. Hence they are generally 
found by rivers, or on the sea-coast. The Palmyra, on the con- 
trary, grows every where. 

The Nep-yau, or Plantain, 
[miisa paradisiaca,) is one of the 
most valuable gifts of Providence 
to a great part of the globe, grow- 
ing wherever the mean tempe- 
rature exceeds 65°. The stalk 
seldom exceeds seven or eight 
inches in diameter, and twenty 
feet in height, bears but one bunch 
of fruit, and dies. The stem is 
cut close to the gromid, and from 
the same root, however, the tree 
is renewed many years. The 
leaves, when young, are the most 
beautiful in India, exjianding, with 
a smooth surface, and vivid green, 
to six feet in length, and two or 
more in breadth, but, soon after 
attaining full size, the edges be- 
come torn by the wind. The 
flower is very large, purple, and 
shaped like an ear of Indian corn. At the root of the outer leaf; 
a double row of the fruit comes out half round the stalk or cob. 
The stem then elongates a few inches, and another leaf is deflected, 
revealing another double row. Thus the stem grows on, leaving 
a leaf of the flower and a row of the fruit every few inches, 
till there come to be twenty-five or thirty bunches, containing 
about one hundred and fifty or one hundred and eighty plantains, 
and weighing from sixty to eighty pounds. The weight bends 
over the end of the stem, and when ripe it hangs vvitlmi reach. 
Like other palms, it has no branches. 




Tlie Phiuaiii-Tree. 



130 



CHAPTER m. 

Population — Form and Features — Buildings — Food — Dress — ]Mani>er3 
and Customs — Character — Condition of Women — Marriage — Polyga- 
my — Divorce — Diseases — l^Iedical Practice — Midwifery — Funerals — 
Amusements — Musical Instruments — Manufactures. 

Few countries have had their population so variously esti- 
mated. Old geograjjhies stated it at 30,000,000 ; Syinines made 
it 17,000,000; Cox afterwards reduced it to 8,000,000; and Balbi 
allows it only 3,700,000. The chief woon-gyee at Ava informed 
me that the last census gave a total of 300,000 houses. Allowing 
a fraction short of seven persons to a house, this would make 
2,000,000 ; presuming one third of the houses to have escaped 
enumeration, we have 3,000,000. After the most careful inqui- 
ries, I am led to put down the number of the inhabitants, to 
whom the Burman tongue is vernacular, at 3,000,000. This esti- 
mate was confirmed by many persons and numerous facts. The 
Sliyans are probably 3,000,000 more, and, with other subsidiary 
tribes, bring up the total population to about the estimate of 
Cox. 

The people, though not so tall as Hindus, are more athletic. 
The average height of men is about five feet two inches, and 
of women four feet ten inches; that is to say, about four or five 
inches shorter than the average height of Europeans. Women 
have more slender limbs than men, but are universally square- 
shouldered. Corpulence is not tnore frequent than in this coun- 
try. In features they are totally dissimilar to the Hindus, and 
rather resemble the IMalajs, especially in the prominence of 
cheek-bones, and squareness of the jaw. The nose is never prom- 
inent, but often flat, and the lips generally thick. The complex- 
ion of young children, and those who have not been exjiosed to 
the sun, is that of our brightest mulattoes. Few, except among 
the higher classes, retain this degree of fairness, but none ever 
become, by many shades, so black as Hindus. I saw few whose 
comi)lexions were clear enough to discover a blush. The stand- 
ard of beauty seems to be delicate yellow; and in full dress, a 
cosmetic is used by ladies and children which imparts this tint. 
It is remarkable that this hvic should be admired not only here, 
but amongst the almost black natives of Hindustan, and the 
many-colored inhabitants of the islands of the Indian Ocean. 



BUILDI>GS. 131 

The hair of the head is very abundant, always black, rather 
coarse, and rendered glossy by Irequeut anointings. On the 
limbs and breast there is none, strongly contrasting in this re- 
spect with Hindus, whose bodies are almost covered with hau\ 
Their beard is abundant on the upper lip, but never extends over 
the cheeks, and is but scanty on the chin. 

Puberty does not occiu- much earlier than with us; women 
bear children to nearly as late a period. The average length of 
life seems not perceptibly different from that of Europe. 

Dwellings are constructed of timbers, or bamboos set in the 
earth, with lighter pieces fastened transversely. When good 
posts are used, they are set seven feet apart ; lighter ones and 
bamboos are placed closer. A frame set on stone or brick pillars, 
is never seen. The sides are covered, some with mats, more or 
less substantial and costly ; or with thatch, fastened with split 
ratans. The roof is usually of thatch, even in the best houses. It 
is very ingeniously made and fastened on, and is a i)erfect security 
against wind or rain. The cheapest is made of strong grass, six 
or seven feet long, bent over a thin strip of cane four feet long, 
and stitched on with ratan. A better kind is made of attap or 
dennee leaves, in the same manner. These are laid on lilce 
Avide boards, lapping over each other from twelve to eighteen 
inches. They cost a mere trifle, and last about three years. 

The floor is of split cane, elevated a few feet from the earth, 
which secures ventilation and cleanliness, and makes them far 
more comfortable and tidy than the houses of Bengal. The open 
crevices between the slats, however, too often invite carelessness, 
by suffering offal and dirty fluids to pass tlu'ough ; and not un- 
frequeutly, among the lower ranks, the space under the house is 
a nasty mud-hole, alive with vermin. The doors and windows 
are of mat, strengthened with a fiame of bamboo, and tied fast 
at the top. When opened, they are propped up with a bamboo, 
and form a shade. Of course, there are no chimneys. Cooking 
is done on a shallow box, a yard square, fllled with earth. The 
whole house may be put up in two or three days, at an expense 
of from sixty to one hundred ruj)ees, though many do not cost 
half that sum. Posts of conunon timber last from ten to fifteen 
years, iron-wood forty or fifty, and good teak eighty or a 
hundi'ed. The houses of the more o})ulent, in large towns, are 
built of wood, with j)lank floors and pannelled doors and 
window-shutters, but without lath, plaster, or glass. 

Such houses furnish a fine harbor for spiders, worms, lizards, 
and centipedes ; but create no inconvenience in general, except 



132 BURMAH. 

tlie particles of dust which are constantly powdered down 
from the thatch, as tiie worms eat it up. The lizards are not 
only harmless, but useful, by consuming flies, musquitoes, &c. 
The centijiedes are poisonous; but it is veiy rare that any one is 
bitten, and the result is merely a painful swellmg and inflamma- 
tion lor a few days. 

The rank of the o])ulent is particularly regarded in the archi- 
tecture of the dwelling ; and a deviation from rule would be in- 
stantly marked and punished. The distinction lies chiefly in 
hips or stages in tlie roof, as seen in the picture of a zayat, on a 
subsequent page. 

The whole of the architectural skill of this people is by no 
means exliibited in their dwellings. Some of the zajats, pago- 
das, and tem])les, are truly noble. There can be no doubt but 
tliat, if the peoj)le were not ])rohibited, they would often erect for 
themselves substantial stone or brick buildings. It has been 
said that they have lost the art of turning an arch ; but this is 
wholly a mistake. I have seen many fine arches, of large span, 
evidently erected within a few years, and some not yet finished, 
constructed wholly by Burman masons. The stucco, which cov- 
ers all buildings, is put on with extraordinarj^dm'ability, and gen- 
erally with tasteful ornaments. Floors and brick images, covered 
in this way, have often a polish equal to the most exquisitely 
wrought marble. The mortar is made of the best lime, and sand, 
with a liberal mixture of jaggeiy, but without hair. No one can 
form a proper estimate of Burman architecture, who has not vis- 
ited Ava, or one of the ancient seats of government. Religious 
structures are there far more numerous and magnificent than 
in distant parts of the empire. As in other countries, the state 
religion shines most, in temporal endowments and honors, in the 
neighborhood of the metropolis. 

Though Burmans s])end all their zeal on useless pagodas, 
there are near the capital some other structures of public utility. 
Some tanks have been constructed, which secure irrigation, and 
consequent fertility, to a fine region of adjacent country. One 
of these, near Mokesobo, is truly a noble work. Across the little 
river at Ava, and the marsh adjacent, is a veiy long bridge, which 
I have not seen surpassed in India, and scai'cely in Europe. 
Various other edifices, both civil and military, ornament the me- 
tropolis, and would do honor to any people. 

The favorite food, in common with all India and China, and 
universally used by all who can aflTord it, is rice. This is often 



FOOD. 133 

eaten without any addition wliatever, but generally with a nice 
curry, and sauces of various stewed melons, vegetables, &lc. 
Except among the very poor, a little meat or tish is added. Sweet 
oil, made trom the sesamum seed, enters largely into their sea- 
soning. JBut the great condiment is chillie, or capsicuiri. From 
the highest to the lowest, all season their rice with this j)lant. 
The consumption is incredibly great, and in its dried state it 
forms a considerable branch of internal trade. The whole pod, 
with its seeds, is ground to powder on a stone, (a little water be- 
ing added if the peppers are diied,) and mixed with a little tur- 
meric, and onions or garlic, ground up in the same manner, and 
generally acidified with some sour juice : often, instead of water, 
the expressed juice of rasped coco-nut is used to make the curry. 
In this the fish or meat is stewed, if they have any, and a very 
palatable sauce is made, at almost no expense. Sweet oil, made 
of the coco-nut, sesamum, or mustard seed, is a very admired 
addition to their various messes, and almost entirely supersedes 
the use of butter. The latter is used only in the clariiied state, 
called pau-bot, and by Europeans ghee. 

Li the upper districts, where rice is dearer than below, wheat, 
maize, sweet potatoes, onions, peas, beans, and plantains, enter 
largely into the common diet Lideed, a Bm-man seems almost 
literally omnivorous. A hundred sorts of leaves, suckers, blos- 
soms, and roots, are daily gathered in the jungle, and a famine 
seems almost impossible. Snakes, lizards, grubs, ants' eggs, &c., 
are eaten without hesitation, and many are deemed delicacies. 
An animal which has died of itself, or the swollen carcass of 
game killed with poisoned arrows, is just as acceptable as other 
meat. Like the ancient Romans, the Burmans are very fond of 
certain wood-worms, particularly a very large species, found in 
the trunks of plantain-trees. I have seen several foreigners, 
who had adopted it as one of their delicacies. 

Though the law forbids the taking of life, no one scruples to 
eat what is already dead ; and there are always sumers enough to 
keep the sanctimonious ones supplied with animal food. Lideed, 
very few scruple to take game or fish. Thousands of the natives 
are fishermen by profession. I asked some of these what they 
thought would become of them in the next state. They ad- 
mitted that they must suffer myi'iads of years, for taking so 
many lives; but would generally add, "What can we do? oiu- 
wives and children must eat." 

Cooking is done in a thin, earthen pot, narrow at the mouth, 
placed close to the fire, on tlii-ee stones. Very little fuel is used, 



134 BURMAH. 

and this of a light kind, often the stalks of flowers, reminding 
me of tlie remark of our Savior, (Matt. vi. 30,) when he reproved 
unreasonable anxiety about raiment. The variety of modes in 
which the difierent kinds of rice are prepared, is surprising. 
With no other addition than sugar, or a few nuts, or a rasjjed 
coco-nut, they make almost as many delicacies as om* confec- 
tioners ; and such as I tasted were equally palatable. 

Though their wheat is of the finest quality, it is much less 
valued than rice, and sells for less money. Its name, " foreigner's 
rice," shows it not to be indigenous ; but when it was introduced 
is not known. Its being also called gyong, which is a Bengalee 
name, intimates that it might have been received irom thence. 
Animals are fed with it, and, in some places, it forms a large part 
of the peo])le's subsistence ; not ground and made into bread, but 
cooked, nuich as they do rice. The bread made of it by 
foi'eigners, is remarkably white and good, the fresh juice of tlie 
toddy-tree fm-nishing the best of leaven. Tlie bakers are gener- 
ally Bengalese, who grind the flour, in the manner so often al- 
luded to in Scripture, in a hand-mill. Wherever there are 
Europeans, there are some of these bakers, who fuiniish fresh 
bread eveiy day, at a rate not dearer than with us. 

Li eating, Burmans use their fingers only, always 
washing their hands before and after, and generally 
their mouths also. A large salver contains the plain 
boiled rice, and another the little dishes of various 
curries and sjxuces. These salvers, or lackered 
trays, are shown in the picture. 

Eating Stand. •' ' , /. , , , i . 

They take huge mouthiuls, and chew the rice a 
good deal. Sometimes a handful is pressed in the palm, till it 
resembles an egg, and is in that form thrust into the mouth. 
The quantity taken at a meal is large, but scarcely half of that 
devoured by a Bengalee. Only the right hand is used in eating, 
the left being consigned to the more uncleanly acts. They eat 
but twice a day, once about eight or nine o'clock, and again to- 
ward sunset. They avoid drinking before, or during eathig, on 
the plea that they then could not eat so much : after eating, they 
take free draughts of jiure water, and lie dowii to take a short nap. 
The di-ess of men in the lower classes, while engaged in labor, 
is a cotton cloth, called pes-sd, about four and a half yards long, 
and a yard wide, passed round the hips, and between the thighs ; 
most of it being gathered into a knot in front. When not at work, 
it is loosed, and passed round the hips, and over the shoulder, 
coveruig, in a graceful manner, nearly the whole body. A large 




4 



135 



part of the peoi)Ie, especially at Ava, weaj* this of silk ; and there 
is scai'cely any one who has not silk for special clays. A jacket 
with sleeves, called i7tgee, generally of white muslin, but some- 
times of broadcloth or velvet, is added, among the higher classes, 
but not habitually, excejjt in cold weather. It buttons at the 
neck and the bottom, as represented in the picture, page 187. 
Dressed or undressed, all wear the tiu'ban or goun-houng, of 
book-muslin, or cotton handkerchiefs. The entire asj)ect of a 
resj)ectable Burman's dress is neat, decorous, 
and graceful. On the feet, when dressed, 
are worn sandals of wood or cow-hide cov- 
ered with cloth, and held on by straps, one 
of which passes over the instep, the other 
On entering a house, these are always left at 



Burman Shoe. 



over the great toe. 
the door. 

Women univei'sally wear a te-mine, or petticoat, of cotton or 
silk, lined with muslin. It is but little wider than is suffi- 
cient to go around the body, and is fastened 
by merely tucking in the corners. It extends 
from the arm-i)its to the ankles ; but laboring 
women, at least afler they have borne children, 
generally gather it around the hips, leaving un- 
covered all the upper part of the form. Being 
merely Ia])ped over in front, and not sewed, it 
exposes one leg above the knee, at every step. 
By the higher classes, and by others when not 
at work, is worn, in addition, an in-gee, or jacket, 
oi)en in the front, with close, long sleeves. 
It is always made of thin materials, and fre- 
quently of gauze or lace. Laboring women 
and children fre(]uently wear, in the cold season, 
a shorter gown, resembling a sailor's jacket, of 
common calico. Nothing is worn on the head. 
Their sandals are like those of men. The 
picture represents a genteel woman, with a cigar, as is very com- 
mon, in her hand. 

Boys go naked till they are five or six in cities, and seven or 
eight in country places. Girls begin to wear clothing several 
years earlier. 

Both sexes wefu- ornaments in their ears. They are not rings, or 
pendants, but cylinders of gold, silver, horn, wood, marble, or paper, 
passed through a hole in the soft part of the ear. The perfora- 
tion is at first sinall, but the tube is from time to time enlarged, 




Burman Lady. 



]36 BURMAH. 

till it reaches the fashionable dimensions of about an inch in 
diameter. As in all countries, some are extreme in their fashions, 
and such enlarge it still more. I have seen some of these ear 
ornaments larger round than a dollar. The boring of a boy's 
ear is generally made, by those who can aflbrd it, an occasion of 
a profuse feast and other entertainments. After the period of 
youth, few seem to care for this decoration, and the holes are 
made to serve for carrying a spare cheroot or a bunch of flowers. 

Men generally wear nnistachios, but phick out their beard with 
tweezers : old peo])!e sometimes sufi'er it to grow ; but it never at- 
tains to respectable size. Both sexes, as a matter of modesty, 
pluck out the hair luider the arm, which certainly diminishes the 
repulsive aspect of the naked bust. 

Uoth sexes wear their liaii- very long. Men tie it in a knot on 
the top of the head, or intertwine it with theii' turban. Women 
turn it all back, and, without a comb, form it into a graceful knot 
behind, frequently adding chaplets or festoons of fragrant natural 
flowers, strung on a thread. As much hair is deemed oniamenta], 
they often add false tresses, which hang down behind, in the 
manner shown in the last picture. Both sexes talve great 
pains with their hair, frequently washing it with a species of 
bark, which has the ju-operties of soap, and keeping it anointed 
with sweet oil. 

Women are fond of rendering their complexions more fair, and 
at the same time fragrant, by rubbing over the face the delicate 
yellow powder already mentioned, which is also found a great 
relief in cutaneous erujjtions, and is often used for this j)urpose 
by the missionary, with success. They occasionally stain the 
nails of the fingers and toes with a scarlet })igment. Bathing is 
a daily habit of all who live in the vicinity of convenient Avater. 
I was often reminded, while sitting in their houses in the dusk of 
the evening, of our Savior's remark, John xiii. 10 — "He that is 
washed needeth not save to wash his feet, but is clean every 
whit." The men, having fluished their labor, bathe, and clean 
themselves at the river, or tank; but walking uj) with wet feet 
defiles them again, so tliat they cannot with j)ropriety come and 
take their place on the mat or bed. Taking up some water, 
therefore, in a coco-jnit dii)per, out of a large jar which stands at 
the door of every house, they easily rinse their feet as they stand 
on the step, and "are clean every whit." 

All ranks are exceedingly fond of flowers, and display great 
taste ui arranging them, on all public occasions. The ])agoda8 
receive daily offerings of these in great quantity, and a lady in 



MAKJNERS AND CUSTOMS. 137 

full dress throws festoons of them around her hair. Dressy men, 
on special occasions, put a few into the holes in their ears. 

In all Burman j)ictures, it is observable that the arm, when used 
to prop the body, is curved the wrong way. This arises from the 
frequency of such a posture to persons who sit on the floor witJi 
their feet at their side, and from the great flexibility of the joints 
of Orientals. It is deemed a beauty in proportion to its degree 
of flexure. I found the same fashion prevailing in Siam, and 
took a drawing, which will come in hereafter. The stories, in 
some books, of their dislocating their elbow at pleasure, and 
even putting up the hair, &c. with the joints reversed, are 
absurd. 

The mode of kissing is curious, though natural. Instead of a 
slight touch of the lips, as with us, they apply the mouth and 
nose closely to the person's cheek, and draw in the breath strong- 
ly, as if smelling a delightful perfume. Hence, instead of saying, 
" Give me a kiss," they say, " Give me a smell." There is no 
word in the language which translates our word kiss. 

Children are canned, not in the arms, as with us, but astride 
the hip, as is the custom in other parts of India. See cut in 
the chapter on Siam. The cradle of an infant is an oblong bas- 
ket, without rockers, suspended from the rafters. The least im- 
pulse sets it swinging; and the child is thus kept cool, and 
unannoyed by the flies. 

The custom of blacking the teeth is almost universal. It is 
generally done about the age of puberty. The person fii-st chews 
alum or sour vegetables several hours, after which a mixture of 
oil, lampblack, and perhaps other ingredients, is applied with a 
hot iron. When done by the regular professors of the art, it is 
indelible. At the metropolis, the practice is getting into disre- 
pute, and still more so in the British provinces ; and as inter- 
course with foreigners increases, the practice may become ob- 
solete. Whenever 1 asked the reason of this custom, the only 
answer was, " What ! should we have white teeth, like a dog 
or a monkey ? " 

Almost every one, male or female, chews the singular mixture 
called coon ; and the lackered or gilded box containing the in- 
gi-edients is borne about on all occasions. The quid consists 
of a slice of ai-eca-nut, a small piece of cutch, and some tobacco 
rolled up in a leaf of betel pepper, on which has been smeared a 
little tempered quicklime. It creates proflise saliva, and so fills 
up the mouth that they seem to he chewing food. It colors the 
mouth deep red ; and the teeth, if not previously blackened, as- 
6* 




138 BUKHAM. 

siune the same color. It is rather ex|)ensive, and is not taken 
very often through the day. Smoking tobacco is still more prev 
alent among both sexes, and is commenced by children almost as 
soon as they are weajied. I have seen little creatures of two or 
tln'ee years, stark naked, tottering about with a lighted cigar in their 
mouth. It is not uncommon for them to become smokers, even 
before they are weaned, the mother often taking 
the cheroot from her mouth and putting it into 
that of the infant! Such universal smokhig and 
chewing makes a spittoon necessary to cleanly 
persons. It is generally made of brass, in the 
shape of a vase, and quite handsome. Hookas 
are not used, and pipes ai"e uncommon. ' The 
cheroot is seldom wholly made of tobacco, 
s itioon. ^^^^ wrapper' is the leaf of the then-nat tree ; 

fragrant wood rasped fine, the dried root of the 
tobacco, and some of the proper leaf, make the contents. 

Men are tmiversally tattooed on the thighs and lower part of 
the body, as is shown in the engraving on page 139. The opera- 
tion is commenced in patches, at the age of eight or ten years, 
and continued till the whole is finished. In the picture, a little 
boy is represented with the operation commenced. The intended 
figures, such as animals, birds, demons, &c., are traced with 
lampblack and oil, and pricked in with a pointed instrument. 
Frequently the figures are only lines, curves, &c., Avith an occa- 
sional cabalistic word. The process is not only painful, but ex- 
pensive. The tattooing of as much surface as may be covered 
by "six fingers" costs a quarter of a tical, when performed by an 
ordinary artist ; but when by one of siii)erior qualifications, the 
charge is higher. Not to be thus tattooed is considered as a 
mark of efl[eminacy. The practice originates not only from its 
being considered ornamental, but a charm against casualties. 
Those who aspire to more eminent decoration liave another tat- 
tooing, with a red jjigment, done in small squiues upon the breast 
and arms. 

A few individuals, es])ecially among those who have made 
arms a profession, insert under the skin of the ai'm, just below 
the shoulder, small pieces of gold, copper, or iron, and sometimes 
diamonds or pearls. One of the converts at Ava, formerly a 
colonel in the Burman army, had ten or twelve of these in his 
arm, several of which he allowed me to extract. They are 
thin plates of gold, with a charm wiitten upon them, and then 
rolled up. 



V 



CHARACTER. 



139 



The upper classes sleep on bedsteads, with a thii] niattrass or 
mat ; but most peoj)Ie sleep on the floor. Some have a thick cot- 
ton cloth to wrap themselves in at night ; but the majority use 
only the clothes worn in the day. Sheets are not thought of by 
any class : even Europeans prefer to have their mattrasses en- 
closed m the fine mats of the comitry, and sleep in suitable 
(kesses. 

Respectable people are always attended m the streets by a 
few followers, sometimes by quite a crowcL A petty officer of 
middling rank appears with six or eight: one carries a pipe, 
another a coon-box, another a water-goblet, with the cup turnea 
upside down on the mouth, another a spittoon, another a meni- 




Burman Gentleman and Followers. 



orandum-book, etc. All classes use umbrellas when walking 
abroad. Peasants and laborers, when at work, generally wear 
hats two or three feet in diameter, made of light bark. 

It is scarcely safe for travellers to attempt to portray national 
character. Calm and prolonged intercourse, at every place, 
with men long on the ground, and daily contact with natives, 
merchants, civilians, soldiers, and missionaries, gave me, however, 
oppoitunities for forming opinions such as fall to the lot of 
few. 

The Burman character differs, in many points, from that of the 
Hindus, and other East Indians. They are more lively, active, 
and industrious, and, though fond of repose, are seldom idle 
when there is an inducement for exertion. When such induce- 



140 BURMAH. 

ment offers, they ex]iib)t not only great strengtli, but courage and 
perseverance, and often accomplish what we should think scarcely 
])ossil)le. But these valuable traits are rendered nearly useless, 
by the want of a higher grade of civilization. The poorest classes, 
fui'nished by a hap})y climate with all necessaries, at the price of 
only occasional labor, and the few who are above that necessity, 
find no proper pursuits to fill up their leisure. Books are too 
scarce to enable them to improve by reading, and games grow 
wearisome. No one can indulge pride or taste in the display, or 
scarcely in the use, of wealth. By imjiroving his lands or houses 
beyond his neighbors, a man exi^oses himself to extortion, and 
perhaps personal danger. The pleasures, and even the follies, of 
refined society, call forth talents, diffuse wealth, and stimulate 
business ; but here are no such excitements. Folly and sensu- 
ality find gratification almost without effort, and without expen- 
diture. Sloth, then, must be the repose of the poor, and the busi- 
ness of the rich. From this they resort to the chase, the seine, 
or the athletic game ; and from those relapse to quiescent indul- 
gence. Thus life is wasted in the profitless alternation of sensual 
ease, rude dmidgery, and active sport. No elements exist for the 
improvement of posterity, and successive generations pass, like 
the crops upon their fields. Were there but a disposition to im- 
prove the mind, and distribute benefits, what majesty of piety 
might we not hope to see in a country so favored \^ith the means 
of subsistence, and so cheap in its modes of living ! Instead of 
the many objects of an American's ambition, and the unceasing 
anxiety to amass projjerty, the Burman sets a limit to his desires, 
and when that is reached, gives himself to repose and enjoyment. 
Listead of wearing himself out m endeavors to equal or sur- 
pass his neighbor in dress, food, furniture, or house, he easily 
attams the customaiy standard, beyond which he seldom desires 
to go. 

When strangers come to their houses, they are hospitable and 
courteous ; and a man may travel from one end of the kingdom 
to the other without money ; feeding and lodging as well as the 
people. But otherwise they have little idea of aiding their 
neighbor. If a boat, or a wagon, &c., get into difficulty, no one 
stirs to assist, unless requested. The accommodation of strangers 
and travellers is particularly provided for by zayats or caravan- 
saries, built in every village, and often found insulated on the 
highway. These sei*ve at once for taverns, town-houses, and 
churches. Here travellers take up their abode even for weeks, 
if they choose ; here public business is transacted, and here, if a 



CHARACTER. 141 

pagoda be near, worship is performed. They are always as well 
built as the best houses, and oflen are among the most si>lendid 
structures in the kingdom. Though they turnish, however, no 
accommodations but a shelter, the traveller procures at the bazai' 
all he finils necessary, or receives, with the utmost ])romi)titude, a 
full supply from the families around. A missionary may travel 
from one end of the country to the other, and receive, wherever 
he stops, all that the lamily can offei". 

Temperance is universal. The use of all wine, spirits, opium, 
&c., is not only strictly forbidden, both by religion and the civil 
law, but is entirely against public opinion. I have seen thou- 
sands together for hours, on public occasions, rejoicing in all 
ardor, without obsei-ving an act of violence or a case of intoxica- 
tion. Dui'ing a residence of seven months among them, I never 
saw but one intoxicated ; though the example, alas ! is not want- 
ing on the part of foreigners. It is greatly to be deplored that 
foreigners, particularly Moguls and Jews, tempt their boatmen 
and laborers to drink ai-dent spirits, and have taught a few to 
lianker after it. 

During my whole residence in the country', T never saw an 
immodest act or gesture in man or woman. The female dress 
ceitainly shocks a foreigner by revealing so much of the person ; 
but no women could behave more decorously in regard to dress. 
1 have seen hundi'eds bathe without witnessing an immodest or 
even careless act, though, as in the case of woman's di"ess, the ex- 
posure of so much of the person would, with us, be deemed im- 
modest. Even when men go into the water by themselves, they 
keep on their pesso. As to general chastity, my informants dif- 
fered so greatly that I cannot speak. It is certain that, among 
the native Christians, there has been much trouble produced by 
the lax morality which prevails in this respect among mai-ried 
people. 

Children are treated with great kindness, not only by the 
mother, but the father, who, when unemj)loyed takes the young 
child in his arms, and seems pleased to attend to it, while the 
mother cleans her rice, or perhaps sits unemployed by his side. 
In this regard of the father, girls are not made secondary, though, 
as with us, boys are often more valued. I have as often seen 
fathers carrying about and caressing female infants, as male. 
Infanticide, except in very rare cases by unmarried females, is 
utterly unknown. A widow with childi-en, girls or boys, is much 
more likely to be sought again in marriage than if she had none. 



142 BURMAH. 

The -vvantof tliem, on a fii'st marriage, is oue of the most frequent 
causes of polygamy. 

Children are almost as reverent to parents as among the 
Chinese. Tliey continue to be greatly controlled by them, even 
to middle life ; and the aged, when sick, are maintained with great 
care and tenderness. Old peoj)le are always treated vvitli marked 
deference, and in all assemblies occupy the best seats among 
those of their own rank. 

They are called an inquisitive people, and may be more so 
than other Orientals ; but 1 saw no particular evidence of it. 
Perhaps much of what travellers call inquisitiveness is no more 
than the common form of salutation. Instead of, "How do you 
do?" their jjhrase is, " Where are you going .^ " They certainly 
seem fond of news, but not less fond of their own old customs, 
to which they cling with great tenacity. 

Gravity and reserve are habitual among all classes ; caused 
probably by the despotic character of the government and the 
insecurity of every enjoyment. Men are seldom betraj-ed into 
anger, and still less seldom come to blows. The women are 
more easily provoked, and vent their spleen with the most frantic 
violence of voice and gesture, but do not strike. Both sexes 
utter, in then* quarrels, in default of profane oaths, of which their 
language is happily destitute, such obscene expressions as can 
scarcely be conceived ; and not content w ith applying them to 
their adversary, they heap them upon his wite, children, and 
parents. They are certainly far from being irritable, and one 
daily witnesses incidents, which among us would excite instant 
strife, pass off without a sign of displeasure. 

Gratitude is a virtue of great rarity. They never, on receiving 
a present or any other favoi-, make any acknowledgment ; nor 
is there any phrase in the language equivalent to " 1 thank you." 
Those who have associated much with Christians, and especially 
Christians themselves, are exceptions to the general rule. These, 
and whoever else wish to express thankfulness, use the phrase, 
"I think it a favor," or "It is a favor." Boodhism necessarily 
tends to suppress gratitude by keeping up the constant sense of 
mercenariness. If a man docs another a favor, he su])poses it to 
be in order to obtain merit, and seems to feel as though he con- 
ferred an obligation by giving the opportunity. 

Thieving and pilfering are common, but perhaps not more so 
than in other countries ; and much less so than we might expect, 
considering the frail and accessible nature of their houses. 



CHARACTER. 143 

These crimes, too, are for the most part perpetrated by a few of 
the basest sort, and caimot be regarded as stamping the character 
of tiie nation. The inadequacy of the government to the protec- 
tion of the people makes it surprising that criminal ofti^nces are 
not more common. Sometimes gangs of robbers circumvent a 
house, and while some phuider it, otliers preckide all aid. Boats 
are quite frequently i-obbed, as tiie offenders then are not easily 
traced. Murder not unfrequently accompanies these depre- 
dations. 

Lying, though strictly ibrbidden in the sacred books, prevails 
among all classes. They may be said to be a nation of liars. 
They never place confidence in the word of each other, and all 
dealing is done with chicanery and much disputing. Even when 
detected in a lie, no shame is manifested; and unless put on oath, 
which a Burman greatly dreads, no reliance whatever can be 
placed on the word of any man. Of course there are honorable 
exceptions to this general character, as there are in the other 
vices. 

There, perhaps, never was a jjcople more offensively proud. 
From the monarch, who adojjts the most grandiloquent titles he 
can invent, to the pettiest officer, every man seems bloated with 
self-conceit. Accustomed to conquest under every king since 
Alompra, and holding all the adjacent tribes in vassalage, they 
carry themselves in a lordly manner. The meanest citizen seems 
to feel himself superior to the Peguans, Karens, Tongthoos, &-C., 
around him. Gradations of rank are most minutely and tena- 
ciously maintained, and are signified in every thing. Houses, 
dj-ess, betel-box, water-goblet, cap, umbrella, horse-equipments, 
&c., are all adjusted by rule. To I'ide on an elephant is the priv- 
ilege only of royalty and high office, though often granted as 
an indulgence to others. The king alone, and his immediate 
family, use a white umbrella; the next have them gilded, the next 
red or fringed, next green, &c. Subdivisions of these grades 
are marked by tlie number of umbrellas of each particular 
color. Thus one has twenty, another ten, another eight, and so 
downward. 

The very language in which common actions are mentioned is 
made to minister to this nicety. Thus there are three or four 
ways to speak of eveiy thing, such as eating rice, walking out, 
sleeping, speaking, dying, one of which is always used of the 
king, another of priests, another of rulers, another of common 
persons. It would be an insidt to use a lower pln-ase than the 
person is strictly entitled to, though a higher one is sometimes 



144 BURMA n. 

used as a sign of special respect. The same difference is made 
in the words for walking abroad, and many more. 

This haughtiness is manifested as grossly to foreign ambassa- 
dors as is done in China. They are treated as suppliants and 
tribute-bearers. It has generally been contrived to have them 
presented on the great " beg-pardon day," which occurs once in 
three months, when the nobles are allowed an audience with the 
king, and lay at his foet costly presents. 

Both their religion and government contribute to this pride. 
Holding it as certain that they have passed through infinite 
transmigrations, they are sure they must have been highly meri- 
torious in former states of existence to entitle tlieni to be human 
beings, who are but little lower than Nats, and stand the highest 
possil)le chance for heaven. 

Burmans seem particularly addicted to intrigue and chicanery. 
The nature of the government tends to this, as will be seen in a 
subsequent chapter. In dealing with Europeans, they are also 
tempted to such practices by consciousness of ignorance, and 
by having often been shamefully overreached. But while eva- 
siveness and subtlety are discernible in all their intercourse with 
government men and foreigners, those of the same village seem 
to do business in good faith ; and, when a ruler or European has 
established a character for fair and pimctual dealing, he is seldom 
deceived by those in his emj)loy. 

That polished suavity of manners which so strikingly charac- 
terizes Hindoos, even oi" low caste, is wholly wanting among the 
Burmans. They have nothing which resembles a bow, or the 
shaking of hands. When one is leaving a house, he merely says, 
" I am going," and the other replies, " Go." On receiving a gift or 
a kind office, an acknowledgment is scarcely ever uttered or ex- 
pected. When great reverence is intended, the palms of the 
hand are put together, and thus raised to the forehead, adoringly, 
as in worship ; but this, of course, rarely occurs, except in ad- 
dressing superiors, and is then never omitted. 

In general, they are uncleanly. Some regard, to be sure, ought 
to be had to the light fabrics tliey wear. If we wore a wliite 
jacket as long as we do one of black bombazine, it would look 
filthy enough. Yet it is not more clean. Burmans ate fond of 
appeai-mg neat, and the better classes, when seen abroad, are gen- 
erally very tidy. But their skin, their hair, and their houses, are 
decidedly slovenly. Persons are always seen bathing at the river 
or public wells ; but the proportion to the whole population is very 
small. Very little is accomplished toward removing the filth 



CONDITION OF WOMEN. 145 

from their bodies by their daily ablutions, as they seldom use 
soap, and their skin is generally more or less moistened with oil. 
Few are without vermin in their heads, and washing common 
clothes is done only at very distant intervals. 

This brief delineation oi" character may sei^ve to show how dis- 
torted and partial are the views which mere theorists take of 
heathen society. Formerly, it was the fashion to ascribe the great- 
est purity and dignity to an uncivilized and primitive state of man- 
ners, and to expatiate on the crimes, follies, and effeminacy, of 
more artificial and polished communities. More recently, it has 
been the fashion to consider all who have not received our cus- 
toms, and our religion, as sunk in degradation ; devoid of every 
moral and natural excellence ; and destitute of every species of 
human happiness. The trutli, as to Burmah at least, lies between 
these extremes. 

Women probably have their place assigned them as correctly 
in Burmah as in any other nation. Their mtercourse is open 
and unrestricted, not only with their countrymen, but with for- 
eigners. The universal custom is to give them the custody of 
their husbands' cash ; and by them is done the chief pai't of all 
buying and selling, both in shops and in the bazar. They clean 
rice, bring water, weave, and cook ; occasionally assistmg in the 
management of a boat or the labors of the field. But hard work, 
of all kinds, the universal custom assigns to men. They are by 
no means denied education, nor is any impediment placed in the 
way of their attaining it; but the monastic character of the 
schools prevents admission there. Private sclwols for gu-ls are 
not uncommon in large places. Females of the higher classes 
do not contemn industry, and aflect the languid listlessness of 
some Orientals. They furnish their servants with useful em- 
ployment, over which they preside with attention. A British 
ambassador, when formally presented to the mother of the queen, 
observed in one of the galleries three or four looms at work, 
operated by the maidens of her household. Such a fact reminds 
us of the occupations of Greek ladies, as intimated in the advice 
Telemachus gives Penelope, in Homer's Odyssey: — 

"I^tire, O queen ! thy household task resume ; 
Tend, with thy maids, the labors of the loom. 
There rule, from public care remote and free : 
That care to man belongs." 

Burnians cherish none of those apprehensions respecting 
surplus population,. which dishonor sonie countries in Europe. 



J4G BURMAIl. 

Like the Chinese, they deem the increase of subjects tlie glory 
and strength of the throne. Hence their readiness to have for- 
eigners nmrry Burnian women. Hence, too, tiiey are not allowed 
to leave the kingdoin, nor are the female progeny of mixed 
marriages. Every ship is searched before leaving the country, 
and heavy penalties would be mcurred by the attempt to smuggle 
away any female. 

Man-iages are not often contracted before puberty, and are 
consummated without the sanction of priests or magistrates. 
Pai-ents do not make matches for children ; and every youth looks 
out his own companion. As in moi'e civilized countries, how- 
ever, this reasonable boon is denied the children of royal blood. 
Among common people, when a young man has made his choice, 
he declares himself to the mother, or some friendly matron, and, 
if there be no objection, he is pei'mitted to frequent the house ; 
and something like a regular coiutship takes place. He con- 
tinues his intimacy till all pai'ties are agreed, when he is admitted 
to eat with the daughter, and sleep at the house. He is then 
her husband, and the neighbors gradually ascertain the fact. The 
ratification of marriage consists in eating out of tlie same dish. 
Whenever this is seen, marriage is mferred : indeed, if it can be 
proved, they ai-e married, and must live as husband and wife. 
After maiTiage, the young man must reside with his wife's par- 
ents three years, three months, and three days ; serving them as 
a son. If he choose not to do this, and the bride be willing to 
leave her parents' home, he must pay them sixtj' ticals ; and if, at 
a subsequent stage of his domestication, he choose to depart, liQ 
pays such a proportion as can be agreed on. 

Among the higher classes, marriages are more ceremonious. 
On the wedding day, the bridegroom sends to his intended, suits 
of apparel and jewelry. Mutual friends assemble with him at 
the house of the bride, where a liberal entertainment is given. 
The hands of the couple are solemnly joined, in the presence of 
the company, and they partake out of the same dish a little 
pickled tea. 

Polygamy is authorized by law, but is exceedingly rare, except 
among the highest classes. The original wife generally retains 
preeminence, and the others perform subordinate rfuties in the 
liouse, and attend her when she goes abroad. 

Divorces are shockingly common. If both parties agree on 
the measure, they have only to go before a magistrate, and de- 
clare their desire, when he grants the separation, without any 
further ceremony than requiring them to cat pickled tea before 



D!-. OllCJiS UISKA3F.S. 147 

1:1111, as wns done tit tlieir marriage. If one party seek to put 
a'A';iy the ot.'ier, more trouble and e.\j)en.se is requisite. A pro- 
cess of law must be commenced, and a regular trial had. It 
is tiicretbre seldom attem[)ted. Women may put away their 
luusbunds in the same manner, and witii the same facilities, as 
husbands put away wives. Each party, in all divorces, is at lib- 
erty to marry again. According to the written law, when a man 
and wife sejiarate by mutual consent, the household goods are 
equally divided, the father taking the sons, and the mother the 
daughters. 

Instead of the expensive mode of putting away a husband or 
wife which common law furnishes, a much easier is often re- 
sorted to with complete success. The party aggrieved merely 
turns priest, or nun ; and the matrimonial bond is at once dis- 
solved. They may return to secular life at any time, and marry 
another; but for appearances' sake, this is generally deterred 
some months. 

In the British provinces, considerable ellbrt has been made to 
check the frequency of divorces, but without much success. 

It will be supposed, from the description given of the salu- 
brious climate and simple diet of the Burmans, that diseases are 
few, and the people generally healthy. Such is the fact. Life is 
often prolonged to eight}^ and even ninety years ; though a per- 
son is old at sixty. No general iiestilence has ever been known 
but the cholera, which seldom appears, and then in a milder 
form than in most other countries. 

The principal diseases are fever, rheumatism, consimiption, 
and bowel comi)Iaints. Consumption is a common mode by which 
old persons are carried off, but it attacks youth comparatively 
seldom. Intermittent fevers are scarcely known, but remittent 
and continued types are veiy common. The stone and scrof- 
ula are almost unlaiown ; but dropsy, and asthma, and hernia, 
are not uncommon. The small-pox comes round occasionally, 
and cames off great numbers, especially children. Inoculation 
has been a good deal resorted to, since the English war; but, 
though great efforts have been made, for twenty years, to introduce 
vaccination, it has not succeeded. Matter has been brought 
from Bengal, Madias, England, France, and America; put up in 
every possible mode, but in vain. Fifteen or twenty healthy per- 
sons, in the full course of cow-pox, were sent to Maulmain, a 
few years since, at the exqjcnse of the East India Comy)any, from 
whom many were vaccinated, but only a few successfully ; and 



148 BURMAH. 

from those it could not be propagated again. Leprosy, in sevei-al 
forms, is seen at the great cities, where its victims collect in a 
sepai'ate quarter, and live chiefly by begging — the only beggars 
in the country. The general form is that wliich attacks the 
smaller joints. I saw many who had lost all the fingers and toes, 
and some, both hands and feet Li some cases, the nose also 
disappears. It does not seem much to shorten life, and is not 
very painful, excej)t in its first stages. Those with whom I con- 
versed, declared that they had not felt any pain for years. In 
many cases, it ceases to increase after a time ; the stumps of the 
limbs heal, and the disease is in fact cured. I could not hear 
of any effectual remedy: it seems in these cases to stop of it- 
self. It can scarcely be considered contagious, though instances 
are sometimes given to prove it so. Persons suftering under 
it, are by law separated entirely from other society ; but their 
families generally retire with them, mingling and cohabiting for 
life. The majority of the children are sound and healthy, but it 
is said frequently to reappear in the second or third generation. 
Lepers, and those who consort with them, are compelled to 
wear a conspicuous and peculiar hat, made like a shallow, 
conical basket. The children, v.hether leprous or not, are al- 
lowed to intermari-y only with their own class. 

Cutaneous diseases are common, ai-ising, doubtless, partly 
from general want of cleanliness, and pai'tly from the frequent 
checks which perspiration must receive, where so little clo- 
thing is worn by day or night. It is thought by the natives 
that these diseases arise from the habitual and free consumption 
of fish. The itch is very common. I have seen neighborhoods 
where almost eveiy individual was affected. A sort of tetter, or 
whitish spots, spreading over parts of the body, is exceedingly 
common, but does not seem to affect the general health. It is of 
two kinds ; one, in which the spots retain sensitiveness, and 
another, in which they are entirely insensible. The natives re- 
gard the latter kind as indicating approaching leprosy. 

Oplithalmia is common. Besides the brilliance of a tropical 
sun, from which their light turban in no degree defends the eyes, 
it is probable that the genei'al practice of keeping new-born 
infants in rooms but little darkened, and taking them into the 
open day, may have a tendency to produce this. I never saw 
a Burman squint. Lues venerea is much more rare than with 
us, and generally wears a milder form. There are, occasionally, 
some horrible cases. Of the goitre, said to be common in the 
Indian Ocean, I never saw a case; nor had any person of whom 
I inquired 



DISEASES MEDICAL PRACTICE. ] {9 

There are many medical men, bnt few wlio arc respectulile in 
tlieir profession. As a bod}^, they are the worst of quacks. They 
are divided into two schools. One is called Dat ; literally, "ele- 
ment." These give no medicine, but operate wholly by regula- 
ting the diet They are, in general, the most resjjectable class, 
and, in many cases, succeed very well ; particularly in fevers, 
where they allow an unlimited quantity of acidulated drink, par- 
ticularly tamarind water. The other class is called Say ; literally, 
"medicine." These go to the opposite extremes, giving enor- 
mous doses of the most heterogeneous substances. They some- 
times boast that a particular pill is made ujj of forty, fifty, or sixty 
ingredients, deeming the prospect of hitting the cm-e to be in 
proportion to the number. The medicines are generally of a 
heating kind, even in fevers. In all the bazars are stalls of 
apothecaries, who display a most unimaginable assortment of 
roots and barks, pods and seeds. I have seen English walnut- 
shells exhibited prominently ; indeed, whatever is astringent, is 
carefully saved. Mercury and ai'senic have long been in use, 
and are, in general, given with discretion ; but neai'ly all their 
remedies are di'awn from the vegetable kingdom. 

Funerals ai'e conducted with many demonstrations of grief on 
the part of immediate relations, or hired mourners. No sooner 
is a person dead, than tiie nearest female relatives set up loud 
lamentations, talking the wliile, so as to be heard far and near. 
The house is soon filled with the friends of the fajnily, who suf- 
fer the relations to vent their grief, while they assume all the 
necessary cares and arrangements. The body is washed in 
warm water, and laid out upon a mat or couch, in good clothing ; 
generally wliite, which is the mourning color. A cofiin is pre- 
pared, ornamented more or less, according to station, in which 
the corpse remains several days, when it is carried in procession 
to the place of the dead, and there burned, with the coflin. 
Sometimes the place of the viscera, and parts of the coflin and 
funeral car, are stuffed with gunpowder ; so that, when the con- 
flagration reaches a certain point, the deceased is hlown up to 
the Nats ! Exjjloded into heaven ! The charges are borne by 
the friends, who bring to the house money and gifts, amounting 
sometimes to a considerable surplus. The principal expenses 
ai'e the customary donatives to priests, who benefit largely on 
these occasions ; but the funeral cars are oflen costly, and it is 
usual to give alms to the poor. 

Infants ai'e carried to the grave in their basket cradle, siis- 



150 



FC.NEUALS. 



])cnded from a pole between men's slioiildcrs, witli a neat ran(!]iy 
of fringes, drapeiy, &c. The mother, instead of being dresscil 
up for the occasion, follows weeping, clad in the connnon and 
soiled raiment, worn during her maternal assiduities, around the 
bed of deatii. They are not burned, but buried ; and the cradle, 
I)laced upside down on the grave, preserves for a while the iden- 
tity of the spot, in an appropriate and touching manner. All are 
buried, without burning, who are under fifteen years of age, or die 
of small-pox, or in child-birth, or are drowned. 

When a rich man dies, the body is cleansed of the internal 
viscera, and the fluids squeezed as much as possible from the 
flesh. Honey and spices are then introduced, and the body, en- 
cased in beeswax, remains in the house sometimes for months. 
When the time for burning arrives, the town wears the aj)pear- 
ance of a holiday. Musicians are hired, relations are feasted, and 
throngs of people attend in their best clothes. The body, when 
brought out, is placed on a sort of triumphal car, some resisting, 
and others propelling, with such earnestness and confusion, that 
the coffin seems in danger of being drojjped between the house 
and tlie car. One party cries, " We will bury our dead ; " the other 
vociferates, "You shall not take away my friend." When placed 
in the car, the same struggle is renewed, and two or three days 
are spent in this manner; the people manifesting all the jollity 
of a festival. It is, of course, understood that the resistance must 
not be serious ; and the pai"ty who carry out the body idtimately 
succeed. The rest of thj ceremony resembles the funeral of a 
priest, described in a subsequent chapter. Sometimes the body 
is caiTied round about, that the ghost may not find its way back 
to the house. The remains of great personages, after burning, 
are collected in small urns of glass, ivoiy, gold, or silver, and pre- 
served in the family. Persons dying of cholera, which is deemed 
infectious, are not burned, but must be buried the same day. 

The following account of the burning of an At-wen-woon's 
wife, from Crawfurd,* gives a very satisfactory idea of a court 
funeral, which I had no opportunity of seeing. 

"The insignia of the At-wen-woon were borne in front; then 
came presents for the priests, and alms to be distributed amongst 
the beggars, consisting of sugar-cane, bananas, and otiier fruits, 
with garments. An elephant, on which was mounted an ill- 
looking fellow, dressed in red, followed these. The man in red 
had in his hands a box, intended to carry away the bones and 

* Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava. 



BURMA H. 151 

aslies of the deceased. Tliis, it seems, is an ignominious ofiice, 
performed by a criminal, wlio is pardoned for liis sei'vices. Even 
liie elejiliant is thought to be contaminated by being thus em- 
j)loyed, and for tiiis reason an ohl or maimed one is selected, 
which is afterwards turned loose into the forest. A band of 
music followed the elejihant ; after which came a long line of 
priestesses, or nuns, all old and infirm ; then came ten or twelve 
young women, attejidants of the deceased, dressed in white, and 
ciQTying lier insignia. The state ])alanquins of the deceased and 
her husband; the bier; the female relations of the family, earned 
in small litters, covered with wiiite cloths ; the husbands' and 
male relations on foot, dressed in white, followed in order. The 
queen's aunt ; the wives of the Woon-gyee, the At-wen-woon's, 
and Woon-dauks, witli other females of distinction, closed the 
procession. 

" The body was conveyed to a broad and elevated brick terrace, 
where it was to be biu'nt. We assembled on this to see the cere- 
monies to be performed. The coffin, wliich was veiy splendid, 
was stripped of the large gold plates with which it was orna- 
mented, and the class of persons whose business it is to burn 
the bodies of the dead, were seen busy in preparing the materials 
of the flmeral i)ile. This is a class hereditarily degraded, living 
in villages apart from the rest of the inhabitants, and lield to be 
so impure that the rest of the people never intermany with 
them. By the common people tliey are called Thuba-raja, the 
etymology of which is uncertain ; but their proper name is 
Chandala, pronounced by tlie Bin^mans Sandala. Tliis is obvi- 
ously the Sanscrit name of the Hindoo outcasts. The Chan- 
dalas, united with the le})ers, beggars, and cofiin-makers, are 
under the authority of a Wun, or governor; hence called Le- 
so-ioun, or 'governor of the four jurisdictions.' He is also 
occasionally called A'-rwat-wun, which may be translated, 
'governor of the incurables.' This person is by no means 
himself one of the outcasts, but, on the contrary, a dignitary 
of the state. Like all other public functionai'ies, he has no 
avowed salary, but draws his subsistence from the narrow 
resources of the degraded classes whom he rules. Their 
villages are assessed by him in the usual manner; and being 
invested with the administration of justice over these outcasts, 
he draws the usual perquisites from this resource. A consider- 
able source of jirofit to him also is the extortion practised upon 
the more respectable part of the coumiunity. The scar of an 



152 



FL■^'L;UALS. 



old soi'e or wound will often be sufficient pretext to extort 
iiiouey from tlie individual marked with it, to enable bim to 
escape from being driven from society. If a wealthy individual 
have a son or daughter suffering from leprosy, or a disease 
which may be mistaken for it, he will have to pay dearly to avoid 
being expelled, with his whole family, from the city. The Chan- 
dalas, or burners of tlie dead, were represented to me as liaving 
originated in criminals condemned to death, but having their 
punishment commuted. Thej'^ differ from the Taong-m'hu in 
this — that the punishment of the foriner descends to their 
posterity ; whereas that ol' the latter is confined to the individual. 
" In a short time, the mourners, consisting of the female rela- 
tions and servants of the deceased, sat down at the foot of the 
coffin, and began to weep and utter loud lamentations. Their 
grief, however, was perfectly under control ; for they ceased, 
as if by word of command, when the religious part of the cere- 
mony commenced. It sometimes happens that, when the fam- 
ilies of the deceased have few servants or relations, hired mourn- 
ers are employed for the occasions. The first part of the office 
of the burners was to open the coffm, turn the body prone, 
bend back the lower limbs, place six gilded billets of wood 
under its sides, and four over it. The Rahans, or priests, had 
hitl)erto neither joined the procession nor taken any share m the 
funeral rites, but were assembled in great numbers under a shed 
at no great distance. The high-priest, or Sare d'hau, and another 
priest, now came forward, and, along with the husband, took in 
their hands the end of a web of white cloth, of which the other 
was affixed to the head of the coffin. They sat down, and the 
friends and principal officers of government joined them. The 
priest, followed by the assembly, with their hands joined, mut- 
tered the following prayer or creed, viz. ' We worship Boodli ; 
' We worship his law ; ' ' We worship his priests ; ' and then 
repeated the five commandments — 'Do not kill;' 'Do not 
steal;' 'Do not commit adulteiy;' 'Do not lie;' 'Do not 
drink wine.' The husband poured water upon the cloth from a 
coco-nut shell, pronouncing, after the priest, these words : 'Let 
the deceased, and all present, partake of the merit of the cere- 
monies now performing.' The assembly pronounced the words, 
' We partake ; ' or, ' We accept.' The pouring of water upon 
the ground is considered by the Burmans the most solemn vow. 
It is as if it were calling the earth to witness, or rather the guar- 
dian Nat, or tutelary spirit of the jilace, who, it is supposed, will 
hold the vow in remembrance, sjiould men fuiuet it. Two other 



BURMAH. 153 

priests followed tlie fii'st, repeating the same, or similar praycra 
and ceremonies. Atler this, the company retired to some dis- 
tance, and fire was set to the funeral pile. Notwithstanding the 
pomp and parade of tliis ceremony, it was, upon the whole, not 
solemn, and indeed, in all resjjects, scarcely even decorous. 
The persons not immediately concerned in the performance of 
the funeral rites, laughed and talked as at a common meeting; 
and the solemnity of the occasion seemed to affect no one beyond 
the husband, the son, and the female relations." 

Among the chief amusements are the drama, dancing, tumbling, 
music, athletic feats, and chess. The first four of these, as with 
other nations, are generally connected in one exhibition. The 
dramatic representations are rather respectable ; though the best 
performers are generally Siamese, who, in these matters, are said 
to excel all others in India. The performances are always open 
to the public, genei'ally under a temporary canoj)y, extended over 
the street; and in passing, 1 sometimes sto])ped a few moments, 
but not long enough to understand the plot. The dresses are 
modest, but showy, and aj)parently ex])ensive. Symmes pro- 
nounces the dialogue to be "spirited, without rant, and the acting 
animated, without being eMravagant." 

Clowns, harlequins, and buffoons, whose performances are not 
different from our own, fill up the intei-vals between the acts. 
Theatres are not established at any ai)propriate building. The 
actors are always jjerambulatoiy, and i)erform at the sole expense 
of persons giving an entertainment. 

The dancing is the reverse of oms; being performed with very 
slow and stately movements, and less with the feet than with 
other parts of the body. Tlie dancer walks round the stage, ex- 
tending his arms, and placing himself in every possible attitude. 
Tlie head, ai-ms, back, wrists, knees, and ankles, are strained this 
way and that, keeping time to loud music. No figures or com- 
binations are attempted, but each dancer makes gesticulations, 
according to his own ideas of gracefulness. Males and females 
do not dance together; indeed, there are scarcely any female dan- 
cers, the men assuming female costume for the occasion. Their 
long hair, done up a la femme, makes the dece[)tion so complete 
that strangers are confident they are females. The English 
practice of dancing, one's self, for amusement, is quite astonishing 
in all paits of Inditu The eflbrt seems downright drudgery, and 
the more absurd as they can liave it done for them, better, ami 



154 AMUSEMENTS. MUSIC. 

yet so clieap, by those whose profession it is ! 1 have often been 
watched wit!i astonislinient while walking backward and forward 
on the shore, when my boat was moored for the night. They 
are amazed tliat a ivian who might sit, should choose to walk, or 
that, if able to lie down, he should choose to sit. 

The boxing differs little from similar abominations in England 
except in being conducted with far less barbarity. The first ap- 
pearance of blood terminates a contest. 

Cock-fighting is very prevalent in some parts of the countrj'. 
The fowls are of extraordinary courage, and the spurs are armed 
with gafiles. Engagements of this kind may be seen daily in 
the streets. 

Foot-ball is very conmion, and played with gi'eat skill. The 
ball is a hollow sphere, of split ratan, from six to ten inches in 
diameter, which, being perfectly light, is thrown high in air at 
each stroke. The object is to keep it aloft. It is struck not only 
with the instep, but with the head, shoulder, knee, elbow, heel, 
or sole of tlie loot, with almost unerring precision. This is cer- 
tainly a remarkable amusement for sedentary Orientals, and 
seems to be derived from the active Chinese, whom I have seen 
at this game in several other parts of the East. 

Chess is common, especially among the better classes. It ia 
in some sort sanctioned by the sacred books; at least, instances 
are there recorded of celestial personages having played at the 
game. TliO board is like ours ; but instead of a queen, they 
have a prime minister, whose moves are more restricted. 

All games of chance are strictly forbidden by their religion, 
and may be said to be generally avoided. Several such games 
are, however, in use. One of these is played with cowries thrown 
ijito a bowl, and seems to be the same practised by sch( olboys 
in America, called props. It j)revails extensivelj', and the jin- 
gling of the sliells may often be heard all night. 1 several times 
saw donfmoes played. Card-playing is by no means unknown, 
though less general than many other games. The card is about 
the size of ours, but the pack is more numei'ous and more beau- 
tifid. 1 had one oft'ered me for sale for about twenty dollars, 
which had elaborate paintings on eveiy card. 

The peop'e may be said to be addicted to music, though few 
are skilful in producing it. The common street nuisic is horri- 
ble ; but among the great men I found several performers, who 
showetl not only great skill, but geniiine taste. It is remarkable 



155 




that Jill tlieir tunes are on a minor and i)Iauitive key, aboniuUng 
ui seiuitones and slurs. 

Their variety of instruments is not large ; and, 1 think, are all 
specified in the following enumeration : — 

The Moung, or gong? 
is a sort of bell, sJKi})pd 
like that of a clock, or 
a shallow wooden bowl 
with the edge turned 
in, composed of tin, 
bismuth, and cojjper. 
It is evidently bor- 
rowed from the Chi- 
nese, though made by 
themselves. It is of va- 
rious sizes, from a di- 
ameter of three or lour 
inches, to tliat of tv/enty 
or thirty. It is struck 
with a mallet covered with rags or leather, and produces a deep? 
solemn tone, not unpleasant. 

The Pan-ma-gi/ee, or drum, is not unlike our great band-druui) 
but much Iieavier, being made, as ail their drums are, of solid 
wood, excavated. The parchment is stretched by the same ar- 
rangement. 

The Tseing, or S'hing, or 
Boundaiv, is a collection of smull 
drums, suspended round the in- 
side of a richly-carved frame 
of wood, about three feet high. 
They regularly diminish in size 
from that of a two-gallon meas- 
ure to that of a pint. The 
player sits within the circle, and 
with his hands produces a rude 
tune or accompaniment. Drum- 
sticks are not often used. In the 
D^,,^j full band the boundaw is never 

omitted. 
The Megoum, or Me-hjoung, is a guitar, in the shaj)e of a croc- 
odile, with the strings extending li-om shoulder to tail, supported 
by a bridge in the centre, and played with the fingers. 




156 BCRMAH. 

Tlie nianufactiu-es of this country are by no means contempti- 
ble, and many trades are cai-ried on skUfuliy, particulaily in laige 
cities. 

Sliip-building, on European models, is conducted on an exten- 
sive scale at Rangoon. Colonel Franklin comj)utes that, from 1 7t!0 
to 1801, tliiee thousand tons were built thus in that city. The 
cost of such vessels is a third less than at Calcutta, a half less than 
at Bombay. Native vessels aie very numerous, owing to the 
absence of roads, and the great size and number of the water- 
courses. Tliese are very ingeniously constructed, and admirably 
adapted to inland navigation, though utterly unlike any thing seen 
in this countiy. Some of them are of two luuidred or two hun- 
dred and fdty tons burden. The canoes are oiten large enough to 
carry eight or nine tons. Li excavating these, they do not &sl 
remove half the tree, but open only a narrow groove, and, after 
the excavation, widen it by fire. A single log thus makes a boat 
seven or eight feet wide. When opened to this extent, it is com- 
mon to add a board, a foot wide, round the edge. 

Good earthen ware is made m several pai'ts of the empire, 
some of which is exported. It consists for the most part of water- 
jars and cooking utensils, of various sizes, generally miglazed. 
These are said to be the best made in India, and are very cheap. 
Ajar the size of a common dinner-pot costs but about thj-ee cents. 
Some of them are the largest I ever saw, and contain from sixty 
to one hundred gallons, thick, black, and well glazed. 

The lamps are of earthen ware, about eiglit 
inches high, much on the ancient classical 
model. The wick is the pith of a twig. 

They malve no porcelain, and indeed need veiy 
little, their utensils of turned woovl, and their 
lackered cups and boxes answering the purpose. 
Specimens of this lackered ware have b«en 
sent home by many of the missionai-ies. They 
are first woven, like a basket, of fine sj)lit ratan, and rendered 
water-tight by successive layers of varnish. The figures are 
scratched on with a sharp style, and colored by spreading on 
paint, winch abides in these traces, but is wiped off with a cloth 
from the smooth surface. Of these boxes, &c., there is a great 
variety ; some large enough to contain a bushel. Those about 
four mches in dianieter, and the same depth, are generally used 
as coon-boxes. The best of this ware is made by the Shyans. 
Jewelry is made at all the principal places, but it is rai'C that 




MANUFACTURES. 



157 



any thing of much taste and beauty is produced in this way. 
Embossmg and fi!igree work form tiieii* chef d'oeuvres ; and some 
specimens which I brought home, would do honor even to a 
Chinese. One of these is a silver box, such as is used for the 
tempered quick-lime in coon ; another is a coco-nut shell, on 
which ai*e the twelve signs of the zodiac, according to their names 
and ideas. I have never seen more beautiful embossing than 
these present. Gems are beautifully cut and polished. 

In gilding they certainly excel ; putting on the leaf with great 
precision, and making it resist dampness. No European picture- 
frames, though kept with the greatest cai-e, withstand the long and 
pervasive damp of the rainy season. But these artists make their 
gilding endure not only in the house, and on the iron tees of pa- 
godas, but even when spread over common mortar on the outside 
of a building. To give both smoothness and tact, they use noth- 
ing but the common thitsay (literally "wood-oil") of the country, 
which is laid on repeatedly, like successive coats of black paint. 

The assayers of pre- 
cious metals are expert 
and exact ; and, as 
money goes by weight, 
and is, therefore, con- 
stantly getting cut to 
pieces, and alloyed, 
these persons are nu- 
merous. I saw a cou- 
ple of them at work in 
the Rangoon custom- 
house, and presuine 
the sketch will make 
the process intelligible. 
A small furnace is set 
in the eartii, urged by 
a double bellows, made 
of two large bamboos. From each bamboo a small tube near the 
bottom conveys the air directly to the fire. The melted metal is 
cast into cakes, weighing two or three dollars, and thus passes 
into circulation, to be again cut into pieces as occasion may 
require. 

Cotton and silk goods are made, m sufficient quantity to supply 
the country. Some of them are fine and beautiful ; but m gener- 
al they are coarse and strong, and always high-priced. In get- 




Assaying Silver. 




158 BURMA n. 

ting the seed from the cotton, they universally use a small aud 
ingenious machine, of which a good idea may be got from the 

picture. It consists of two small 
cylmders, in contact, one of 
which, moved by a crank, turns 
the other : the cotton is drawn 
tlirough, and leaves the seed be- 
hind. One person cleans thus ten 
viss, or thirty-six pounds, per day. 
About two thirds of the weight is 
earmiff otton. j^^^. j^ ggg(j_ fpijg ggeds, Sprinkled 

with oil, are used for torches at festivals, &c., in the open air. 
The whole process of making cotton and silk goods from the 
raw material is managed by women. The siiiiniing-wheel is 
like ours, only smaller, and without legs, as the people sit on 
the floor. Li preparing the rolls, they have nothing like cai'ds, 
and, after whipping it fine with a furrier's bow, tliey form the 
rolls with their fingers. 

Their loom differs in no respect, that I could discover, from our 
common loom in America, except that for foot-paddles they have 
rings or stirrups, in which the feet are placed. When figures are 
to be introduced, however, the mechanism is ingenious, and the 
labor very tedious. The colors for this purpose are each on a 
separate bobbin, or shuttle, passed back and forth with the finger, 
as the weaving advances. Li this manner, the stripes have both 
warp and woof of the same color, like ribbons put together. 
Sometimes a more cm-ious process is adopted, which carries the 
figiu*e aside into other stripes, in a manner which no British loom 
could imitate. To comb the warp, they use the fruit of the Sah- 
thah, a strong grass, eight or ten feet high, with jagged, thorny 
leaves. The fruit is the size of "an ostrich egg, having a shell 
like a young pine bur. This being removed leaves a sharp, 
strong hau-, which makes an excellent brush for the purpose. 

The process of dyeing is well understood, and the colors beau- 
tiful and various ; but, probably for want of proper mordants, or 
from frequent wetting and strong sun, they are apt to be tran- 
sient. The colors of silks, however, are permanent. 

Near Summei-kyoung saltpetre is obtained ; and the principal 
occupation of many of the inhabitants of that region is the man- 
ufacture of gunpowder. This is of pretty good quality, but the 
process of making it I had no opportunity of seeing. In making 
fire-works, which ai-e liberally used on public occasions, particu- 



II 



MANUFACTURES. 159 

larly rockets, they display great ingenuity. Some of them are of 
incredible magnitude. I have seen some from eight to twelve feet 
long, and four to seven inches in diameter. They are sometimes 
still larger. Cox declares that when he was at Ava, he saw some 
made which contained ten thousand pounds of powder each. 
If such were the fact, which seems impossible, the powder must 
have been exceedingly weak. Large rockets are made of a log 
of mahogany, or other tough wood, hollowed out, and well hooped 
with strong ratans or thongs of raw hide. 

Iron ore is smelted in several districts, and forged into imple- 
ments at all the principal places. But they cannot make steel, 
and receive that aiticle from England, by way of Bengal. Their 
chief tool, and one used for all manner of purposes, from the 
felling of a tree to the paring of a cucumber, is the dah. The 
handle is like that of a cleaver, and the blade like a di'awing- 
knife. It is also a prominent weapon, and, when made for this 
purpose, is somewhat more long and slender. 

Brass is compounded and wrought with more skill than is 
shown in almost any other of their manufactiu'es. A good deal 
is made in sheets, and wrought into water-vases, drinking-vessels, 
spittoons, &c. The latter are always of one form, viz. that of a 
vase with a very wide top. See the drawing, page 138. 

In casting bells, Burmah transcends all the rest of India. They 
ai*e disproportionately thick, but of delightful tone. The raised 
inscriptions and figures are as beautiful as on any bells I have 
seen. They do not flare open at the mouth, like a trumpet ; but 
are precisely the shape of old-fashioned globular wine-glasses, or 
semi-spheroidal. Several in the empire are of enormous size. 
That at Mengoon, near Ava, weighs, as the prime minister in- 
formed me, eighty-eight thousand viss — more than three hun- 
dred and thirty thousand pounds ! It seems almost incredible ; 
but if any of my readers, interested in such matters, will make 
a computation for themselves, they will find it true. The bell, 
by actual measurement, is twenty inches thick, twenty feet high, 
including the ear, and thirteen feet six inches in diameter.* 
The weight was ascertained by the Burmans, before casting, and 
its bulk in cubic inches proves them correct. It is suspended a 
few inches from the ground, and, like their other great bells, 
is without a tongue. That at Rangoon is not much smaller. It 



* A friend, distinguished as a civil engineer, computed the weight, from this 
measurement, to exceed 500,000 pounds, supposing the bell-metal to consist 
of' three parts copper and one part tin. 



160 ^ BURMAH. 

will be recollected that the largest bell in the United States obes 
not exceed five thousand pounds. The Great Tom, at Oxford, in 
England, is seventeen thousand pounds, and the famous, but use- 
less bell at Moscow, is foiu" hundred forty-four thousand pounds. 

Gongs are made at or near Ava; but I could not see the pro- 
cess. Kettles, ornaments, images, &c., are nicely cast at the 
capital. 

Two kinds of pai)er are made by Burmans. One is a thin, 
blackened pasteboard, made of macerated cane, and used for 
writing upon with a pencil of soap-stone. From this the writing 
may be removed with a sponge, as from a slate. Sometimes, 
though rarely, it is made white, and written on with ink. The 
other is a thin, but very strong paper, rather fine, and used in 
the manufacture of umbrellas. English and Chinese papers are 
sold in the bazars. The umibrellas are framed of bamboo, and 
covered with glazed paper, and ornamented inside with flos 
silk, like a rose on a blanket. They cost from twenty-five to fifty 
cents apiece, and will last two or three seasons. I saw various 
manufactories of them in the upper cities ; but the seaboard is 
chiefly supplied from China, by way of Penang. 

Along the coast, salt is made to a considerable extent ; but solar 
evaporation, so far as I could learn, is not resorted to. It is a 
monopoly of government, and yields a considerable revenue. 
The process is hasty and imperfect, and so conducted that little 
or nothing can be done but in the months of February, March, 
and April. Each manufacturer pays a tax of about forty ticals, 
without reference to the extent of his works. The article, though 
thus taxed, is but half the price, or less, which it costs when 
cheapest in Bengal, seldom averaging more than fifty cents per 
bushel. 

The manufacture of marble is almost confined, as has been 
stated, *to images of Gaudama. They are made principally at the 
quarries near Sagaing, a few miles fi'om Ava. The export of 
these idols is prohibited, but some may be obtained from the 
Tenasserim provinces. 

Glass is not made at all ; nor do the habits of the people require 
it. Good cordage, even to large cables, is made of coir, or coya, 
the bark of the coco-nut tree. Fishing-nets and small cordage 
are truly beautiful. Sandal-makers are numerous, and their work 
handsome and durable ; but boots and shoes, in our mode, they 
cannot make. Foreigners, however, find no difficulty in getting 
them made by Chinese, who live in all the towns, and make 
almost any thing, if the pattern be furnished. 



101 



CHAPTER IV. 

Government — Orders of Nobility — Grades of Community — Magistracy— 
Laws — Division of Properly. 

The monarch is absolute. Custom and convenience require 
Jiim to ask counsel of the nobles touching important matters, but 
he is not bound to adopt it. Indeed, lie often treats his courtly 
advisers with contempt, and sometimes witli violence — even 
chasing them out of his presence with a drawn sword. On a 
late occasion, for a veiy slight offence, he Jiad tbrty of his highest 
officers laid on their faces in the public street, belbre tlie palace 
wall, and kej)t for hours in a In-oiling sun, with a beam extended 
across their bodies. He is, however, seldom allowed to know 
much of passing events, and particularly of the delinquencies of 
particular officers, who are ever ready to hush up accusations by 
a bribe to their immediate superior. No office, title, or rank, 
except that of the king, is hereditary. Promotion is open to all 
classes. 

Next in rank to the royal family are the woon-gyees, (from 
woon, govej-nor, and gyee, great,) or public ministers of state. Of 
these there are conunonly lour, but sometimes five or six, forming 
a court or council, which sits daily in the lot-dau. His majesty 
is sometimes, though rarely, present at the deliberations. Royal 
acts are issued, not in the king's name, but in that of this council. 
Causes of every kind may be brought here for decision. 

Below these are the woon-douks, (from woon, governor, and 
douk, joro/7,) or assistant woons, who attend at the kit-duu, and 
express their opinions. They have no right to vote, but may I'e- 
cord their dissent. They cooperate in carry i?ig into execution 
great matters of state policy, and are often exceedingly influential. 

Of about tlie same grade, but rather inferior, are the a-twen- 
woons, (fi'om a-twen, insiik, and woon, governor,) of whom there 
are generally from four to six. These constitute the cabinet, or 
privy council ; and have access to his majesty at all times. They 
do not act publicly as king's officers, nor sign imperial docu- 
ments, but are in daily session in a room near the palace. Their 
influence with the king procures them great respect, and many 
bribes. 

There are six or eight government secretaries, called sa-re- 

dau-gyee, [great government wiiters,) whose business is similar to 

7* 



162 BURMAII. 

tliat of the state secretaries. It is not necessary to describe mi' 
nutely the other grades of officers. They descend, in regular pro- 
gression, down to the head-man of a hamlet ; each exercisng 
arbitrary sway over those next beneath. 

The life of men in povver is divided between idleness, sensu- 
ality, intrigue, and oppression. To their superiors they cannot 
witiiout danger avoid flattery, fawnuig, and deceit. From in- 
feriors they derive a maintenance by fraud, deceit, bribery, and 
violence. General knowledge is beyond their reach, for the 
books of the country do not contain it. The liberality and intel- 
ligence gained from intercourse with foreigners is wanting, for 
this also they do not hive. From fii'st to last, they are, with few 
exceptions, harpies, who seek only their own advantage, and 
neither love nor pity the people. The country labors under the 
curse which Jehovah tlu-eatens to send upon a wicked people — 
" Governors who should be like fii-e among the wood, and like a 
torch of fii-e in a sheaf; who should devom* all the people round 
about, on the right hand and on the left." 

Orders of nobility are marked by the tsa-lo-ay, or gilded 
necklace. The particular grade is indicated by the number of 
chams composing it, which are united at different places by 
bosses. Three strands of common chain-work indicate the 
lowest rank ; three, of more curious construction, the next above: 
then come those of six, nine, and twelve ; which last is the high- 
est for a subject. Chief {»rinces of the blood wear eighteen, and 
the monarch himself twenty-four. 

The commimity is, by common estimation, divided into eight 
classes — the royal family, great officers, priests, rich men, labor- 
ers, slaves, lepers, and executioners,* and perhaps some others. 
Even among these are different degrees of respectability. None 
of the classes constitute an hereditary caste, except lepers and 
slaves of pagodas. The latter are the most respectable of all 
outcasts. All, except slaves and outcasts, may aspire to the highest 
offices, which are frequently filled by persons of low origin. 

The legislative, executive, and judicial functions are not sepa- 
rated, but a measure of power m each is enjoyed by every officer. 
Hence arise innumerable and shameful abuses. Having no 
salary, every government-man regards his district, or office, as 

* Executioners are reprieved felons, dead in law, and marked by a tattooed 
circle on the cheek, and often by the name of their crime tattooed in legible 
letters upon their breast. They arc not allowed to sit down in ajjy man's house, 
and all intimacy with them is forbidden. 



GRADES OF COMMUNITY. If^S 

his field of gain ; and hesitates at no measures to make it profit- 
able. Most of the rulers keep spies and retainers, who discover 
who has money, and how it may be got. Accusations of all sorts 
are invented, and the accused lias no way of escape, but by a pres- 
ent. Real criminals may almost invariably elude justice by a 
bribe, if it beai* some proportion to the magnitude of the offence. 
Gangs of robbei's frequently practise their trade by the connivance 
of a ruler who shares their gains. One of the native Christians, 
who had been in the employ of a ruler before his conversion, as- 
sured me, that often, on finding some one who had laid up a little 
wealth, his master would employ some retainer, to place a few 
goods under the intended victim's house, by night, in order to 
bring against him the charge of theft. In the morning, it would 
be loudly proclaimed that this retainer of the great man had been 
robbed. A general search would ensue, and the goods being 
soon detected under the victim's house, the evidence would be 
declared complete. Tlie wretched man, whose only fault was 
thrift and saving, would be condemned to some severe punish- 
ment, and escape only by paymg a fine as great as it was sup- 
posed he was able to bear. 

It would require greater space than can here be spared, to give 
any correct conception of the general misrule of men in power. 
We give one other instance. The late war having introduced 
into Rangoon and vichiity the Bengal coins, the woon-gyee en- 
gaged largely in making four-anna pieces, which were really 
worth but two. They were soon well known, and only passed 
for their real value. The incensed great man sent the herald 
about the city, proclaiming that whoever objected to take them at 
their nominal value, should suffer a specified fine and imprison- 
ment. Business was for a while completely checked, and at 
length, after making some severe examples, he was obliged to 
let the people return to weighing then* money, as before. 

An absolute monarch being, in fact, proprietor both of liis do- 
mains and his people, he cannot but see that the number of his 
subjects, and their prosperity, form his true greatness and honor. 
Hence, though he may be a bad man, prudence and policy dic- 
tate a rule which shall minister to the general good. It seems 
ever to have been thus in Burmah. The king enacts salutary 
laws, and views his people with kindness ; but sycophants and 
intriguers pervert his plans, and frustrate his intentions. Around 
Ava, his personal knowledge, and accessibleness to petition 
through many avenues, check the movements of unprincipled 
nobles, and spread comparative peace and security. Hence the 



164 BURMAH. 

superior populousness of that vicinity. The following account 
of the system of provincial administration is extracted from 
" Crawfurd's Embassy to the Court of Ava ; " that gentleman 
having had, by several month's intercourse with Burman officers, 
a better opportunity than myself of ascertaining these points. I 
allow myself to dwell on this topic, as giving the reader an op- 
portunity of judging of the state of the country and degree of 
civilization. 

" The country is divided mto provinces of very unequal size ; 
these into townships, the townships into districts, and the districts 
into villages and hamlets, of which the number in each is indefinite. 
The word Myo, [Myu,] which literally means a fortified town, is 
applied both to a province and a township ; for there is no word 
to distinguish tliem. The province is, in fact, an aggregate of 
townships ; and each particular one derives its name from the 
principal town within its boundary, bemg the residence of the 
governor. The district or subdivision of the township, in like 
manner, takes its name from the principal village within it. This 
arrangement somewhat resembles that which prevails in China, 
although much ruder. The governor of a province is called 
Myo-wun, and is vested with the entire charge of the province, 
civil, judicial, military, and fiscal. The Myo-wun commonly ex- 
ercises the jiovver of life and death ; but in civil cases, an appeal 
lies from his authority to the chief council at the capital. All the 
public business of the province is transacted in an open hall, 
called a Rung, with the epithet d^hau, or royal. 

" The government of the townships is intrusted to an officer, 
named a Myo-thu-gyi. These words, commonly pronounced by 
us, and by the Mohammedans, Myo-su-gi, may be interpreted 
'chief of the township;' for the word 'thu' means head, or 
head-man: the others have been ex])lained. The districts and 
villages are administered by their own chiefs, named Thu-gys ; 
in the latter instance the word 'rua,' pronounced 'yua,' a village, 
or hamlet, being prefixed. These are all respectively subordinate 
to each other. 

" No public officer under the Burmese government ever re- 
ceives any fixed money-salary. Tlie principal officers ai'c re- 
warded by assignments of land, or, more correctly, by an assign- 
ment of the labor and industry of a given portion of the inhab- 
itants ; and the inferior ones by fees, perquisites, and irregular 
emoluments, as will be afterwards explained. Extortion and 
bribery are common to the whole class. 

' The executive and judicial fimctions are so much blended in 



MAGISTRACY. 105 

tlie Btu'ruese form of administration, that the establislnnents pe- 
culiarly belonging to the latter are not very numerous. At the 
cajjital there is a judicial officer of liigh rank, called the Ta-ra- 
ma-thu-gyi; the principal administration of justice, at the cai)ital, 
at least, appears in former times to have been conducted by this 
officer, but he seems now to have been deprived of the greater 
j)art of it by the encroachments of the two executive councils. 
The inducements to this, of course, were the profits and influence 
which tiie members of these bodies derived from the administra- 
tion of justice. The three towns, with their districts, composing 
the capital, have each their Myo-wun, or governor, and these are 
assisted in the municipal administration of their respective juris- 
dictious by officers named Myo-chari;, commonly pronoimccd 
JMyo-say6, meaning ' town scribe.' They are in reality, however, 
a sort of head constables, and well known as such to all strangers, 
as the busy, corrupt, and mischievous agents of the local authori- 
ties. The palace, from its peculiar importance in Burman esti- 
mation, has its own distinct governors, no less than four in num- 
ber, one to each gate ; their name, or title, is Wen-m'hu ; they 
have the reputation of having under their authority each a thou- 
sand men. In the municipal or provmcial courts, there is an offi- 
cer called the Sit Kai, who is a kind of sheriff or principal con- 
servator of the peace, and, in imitation of the councils at the 
capital, an officer named Na-kan-d'hau, who discharges the office 
of public informer. Most of the Bin-man officers in the prov- 
inces, dowii to the Rua-thu-gyi, or chief of a village, have asses- 
sors of their own nomination, called Kung, who take the drudgery 
ofl'tlie hands of their chiefs, leaving the decision to the latter. A 
Myo, or town, it should be observed, is divided into wards, or 
Ayats, each of which is under the direction of an iuferior police- 
ol^cer, called the Ayat-gaong. The most intelligent and active 
officers connected with the administration of justice, are the Slie- 
nes, or pleaders. These persons are described as being tolerably 
well acquainted with the law and its forms, and are occasionally 
useful and industrious. To each court and public officer there 
are attached a competent number of Na-lains, or messengers; 
and annexed to the prmcipal courts is always to be found the 
T'haong-m'hu, or executioner, with his band of branded ruffians. 
" The Myo-thu-gyis and Rua-thu-gyis, or chiefs of townships, 
districts, and villages, exercise a limited judicial authority withui 
their respective jm-isdictions, and are answerable for the conser- 
vation of the peace. Appeals, in most instances, lie fi'om their 
authority to that of the provincial officers. In civil cases, these 



166 BDRMAH. 

inferior officers tiy all causes subject to appeal ; but in criminal 
ones, tlieir authority is limited to inflicting a few strokes of a ra- 
tan, and they can neitlier imprison nor fetter. In all cases of 
any aggravation, it is their duty to transmit the offender to the 
T'iiaong-m'hu, slieriff, or executioner of the ])rovincial town. 
The authority of the chief of the township was, of coiu'se, some- 
what more extended than that of the district or village, and it 
rested with him to hear and decide upon causes where the parties 
belonged to different districts or villages. When the chief of 
towns or villages failed to produce offenders under accusations, 
they were made to answer the accusation in their own persons at 
the provincial courts." 

The written code, civil and penal, though severe, is, on the 
whole, wise and good ; but is little better than a dead letter. It 
is principally derived from the Institutes of Menu. This work, 
of great celebrity among the Hindus, was translated into English 
by the late Sir William Jones. It seems to have been received 
by the Burmans from Arracan, but at what period is not certain. 
Their translation is called Dam-a-that. Every monarch adds to 
it, or alters, as may please him ; and under some reigns it bears 
little resemblance to the original. For all practical purposes it is 
almost a nullity, being never produced or pleaded from in courts. 
Rulers, from highest to lowest, decide causes according to their 
own judgment, or, more fiequentlj', according to their interest. 
As a great part of their income is derived from lawsuits, they 
generally encourage litigation. They receive bribes unresei-ved- 
ly, in open coiu't, and do not hesitate to accept the gifts of" both 
parties. Their oppressions liave scarcely any restraint but the 
fear of ruining their own interest by carrying matters too far. As 
to seeking the good of their country, or the promotion of justice, 
there ajjpears to be no such thing thought of, except perhaps by 
the king and a few of those immediately about him. 

The form of a judicial oath deserves insertion, as a curiosity 
It is as follows : — "I will speak the truth. If I speak not the 
truth, may it be through the influence of the laws of demerit, viz. 
passion, anger, folly, pride, false opinion, immodesty, hard-heai-t- 
edness, and skepticism ; so that when I and my relations are on 
land, land animals, as tigers, elephants, buffaloes, poisonous ser- 
pents, scorpions, &c., shall seize, crush, and bite us, so that we 
shall certainly die. Let the calamities occasioned by fire, water, 
rulers, thieves, and enemies, oi)press and destroy us, till we perish 
and come to utter destruction. Let us be subject to all the ca- 
lamities that are within the body, and all that ai-e without the 



LAWS. 1G7 

body. May we be seized with madness, dumbness, blindness, 
deafness, leprosy, and liydrojihobia. May we be struck with 
thunderbolts and lightning, and come to sudden death. Li the 
midst of not speaking truth, may I be taken with vomiting clotted 
black blood, and suddenly die betbre the assembled people. 
When I am gomg by water, may the aquatic genii assault me, 
the boat be upset, and the property lost ; and may alligators, 
porpoises, sharks, or other sea-monsters, seize and crush me to 
death ; and when I change worlds, may 1 not arrive among men 
or nats, but suffer unmixed punishment and regret, in the ut- 
most wretchedness, among the Ibm- states of punishment, Hell, 
Prita, Beasts, and Athurakai. 

" If I speak truth, may I and my relations, through the influence 
of the ten laws of merit, and on account of the efficacy of truth, 
be freed from all calamities within and without the body ; and 
may evils which have not yet^come, be warded far away. May 
the ten calamities and the live enemies also be kept far away. 
May the thunderbolts and lightning, the genii of waters, and all 
sea-animals, love me, that I may be safe from them. May my 
prosperity increase like the rising sun and the waxing moon ; 
and may the seven possessions, the seven laws, the seven merits 
of the virtuous, be permanent in my person ; and when I change 
worlds, may I not go to the four states of punishment, but attain 
the happiness of men and nats, and realize merit, reward, and 
annihilation." A Burman seldom ventures to take the oath, not 
only from his terror of its imprecations, but from the expense. 
Captain Alves * states the fbllowuig to be the chai-ges in a cer- 
tain case — "Administration of the oath, ten ticals; messenger 
for holding the book over the head, one tical ; other messengers, 
two ticals ; recorders, two ticals ; pickled tea used in the cere- 
mony, half a tical." 

Trial by ordeal is very seldom used, but is not wholly unknown. 
It is practised in various ways. Sometimes the parties are made 
to walk into the water, and whichever can hold out longest under 
the surface, gains the cause. Sometimes it is by trying which 
can hold the finger longest in hot water or melted lead. A very 
conunon mode of punishment is the stocks, used also as a torture 
to extract confessions or bribes. The instrument resembles the 
one which is well known in Europe, only that it is so constructed 
as to raise the feet from the ground, if desired. The accused is 
thus raised sometimes till his shoulders or head barely touch tlie 

* Report oil Basseiii. 



168 BURMA H. 

floor. In this painful position, lie is glad to pay any demands in 
order to be lowered again. Burman prisons are so insecure as to 
make it necessaiy to resort generally to the stocks or iron fetters. 

The following notices of Burman laws are deemed important, 
as throwing light on the character of the peoj^le. The wife and 
children of an absconding debtor are responsible for his debts ; 
but a woman is not required to pay debts contracted by her hus- 
band during a former marriage. If a debtor wish to prosecute 
liis creditor for vexatious endeavors to get his pay, his cause can- 
not be heard by the judge till the debt is fii-st paid. Where sev- 
eral persons are secm'ities for a debt, each security is responsible 
for the whole amount, so that the first one the creditor can lay 
hold of must liquidate the debt. The property of insolvents 
must be divided equally, without any preference of creditors. 
Property proved to be lost in any town, nnist be made good by a 
tax on the inhabitants, if the thief be not discovered. A man 
finding lost silver or gold receives, on restoring, one sixth ; if 
other property, one third. The eldest son inherits all the arms, 
appai'el, bed, and jewels, of his father; the remainder of the 
property is divided equally into four parts, of which the widow 
takes three, and the other children one between them. If a father 
give one of his sons a sum of money for the purposes of trade, 
that son returns the capital, without interest, at the death of the 
father, to be divided with the rest of the inheritance ; but the gains 
are his own. Before a man's property can be divided, the widow 
must pay all his debts, and give a portion in alms. 

The common punishments are, for minor offences, imprison- 
ment, labor in chains, the stock, and fines. Then follow flogging, 
branding, maiming, slaveiy to pagodas, and death. 

Theft is punished by putting the offender in the stocks, where 
he stays till his friends can raise money enough to appease the 
great man, beside making restitution. For repeated oflenccs, 
im{)risonment and fetters are added ; and the incorrigible, when 
no longer able to pay fines, are tattooed with a circle on the cheek, 
or the name of the offence on their breast. Persons thus marked 
are deprived of all civil rights, that is, become dead in law, and 
are consigned to the class of executioners. 

Capital punishment seldom occurs, and almost exclusisely for 
murder and treason. It is inflicted by beheading, drowning, or 
crucifixion. The number of exarutions in the viceroyship of 
Rangoon is about twenty in a year. Killing a person of the la- 
boring class, in the heat of passion, is punished by a fine of ten 
s'aves, and proportionally up to seventy or one hundred slave.", 



LAWS. 169 

for a person of higher rank. If a man hisults another grievously 
he must, if able, pay a projjer fine ; but if very poor, he is to be 
led through the town with liis face smeared with charcoal. A 
libel is punished by inflicting the same penalty which would have 
been incurred by the fault unjustly charged upon another. But 
if the truth of the charge be proved, it is not a libel. Whoever 
refuses to appear before the judge, loses his cause. 

A husband may administer coiporal punishment to his wife, 
for encouraging too great intimacy with other men, neglect of 
domestic duties, quarrelsomeness, gadding about, meddling too 
much in the concerns of neighbors, or extravagance. He is fii'st 
required, however, to admonish her repeatedly in the presence 
of witnesses. J£ she still remain incorrigible after a reasonable 
number of floggings, he may divorce her. 

If a man accidentally set fii-e to a neighbor's house, he is fined 
one thu-d the value of his body;* but if he was drunk, or in a 
violent passion at the time, he must pay the full value of his body. 
A woman whose husband has gone as a soldier, may marry again 
if she hear not from him ibr six years : if he went on business, 
seven years are required, and if on a religious object, ten. If a 
^voman buy a man and marry him, and afterward divorce him, 
he is no longer a slave. If a father sell his child, and afterwards 
die possessed of property, so much of it as is equal to the price 
for which the child was sold must be paid to that child, in addi- 
tion to his share of the mheritance. A slave sent to war and 
captured, is free if he escape and return. If a master violently 
beat his slave, his bond debt is reduced one third. If death ensue, 
the parents of the slave may claim twice the value of his body ; 
and if there be no parents, that sum is paid to the judge. If a 
slave abscond from a master known to be cruel, there is no pen- 
alty for the pci'son who receives and harbors him. If the master 
has not been cruel, he may exact full value of the slave's ser- 
vices for the time. If a man permit his runaway slave to be 
maintained by another during a time of scarcity, he cannot after- 
ward claim him. A master may not seize his runaway in another 
village, but must notify the head-man, who shall deliver him up, 
if a stranger harbor a runaway, knowing him to be such, he is 
punishable as a thief; but if he be a near relation, there is no 
penalty. 

If a man die insolvent, and charitable people choose to defray 
the expenses of a regular funeral, they are not chargeable with 

* This will generally pay for the house pf a commoi! person. 

8 



170 BURMAH. 

any of his debts; but if they be particular friends, or distant rela- 
tions, they must pay one quaj-ter of his debts ; and if near rela- 
tions, one lialf. The head-man of a village or district is held re- 
sponsible for all robberies committed in his jmisdiction, and must 
make good the loss, with heavy fines, or produce the ofiendei-s. 

Changing a landmai'k is punished by a heavy fine. Debts 
contracted by betting may be recovered from the loser, but not 
from his family or heirs. A man hurt in wrestling, or other ath- 
letic games, cannot recover damages ; but if he be killed, the in- 
jurer must pay the price of his body. A woman or a child 
charging a man with bodily mjuiy, may adduce, as evidence, 
mai'ks of violence on then* persons. But if a man charge a 
woman or a child in the same manner, such marks are not re- 
ceived as proof, but witnesses must be adduced. An empty ve- 
hicle must give place, on the road, to one that is loaded, and if 
loaded men meet, he who has the sun on liis back must give 
way. 

Perhaps no country could have a better system for the division 
of propez-ty. The land is all i-egarded as belonguig to the crown ; 
but any one may occupy as much as he pleases, and in any place 
not already held by another. He has only to enclose and culti- 
vate it, and it is his. If the boundaiy be not maintained, or the 
enclosed space be for several successive years unimproved, it re- 
verts to the king, and may be taken up by any other. Of course 
there ai-e no very large landiiolders ; and it is worth no man's 
while to hold large miimproved estates. 

This system does not in any degree prevent the regular inher- 
itance, sale, or rentmg of estates ; which proceed just as with us. 
The king hunself often purchases lands. Mortgages, leases, &c., 
are also taken ; but a man who loans money on mortgage has the 
entire use and mcome of the land or house, mstead of a fixed rate 
of mterest, and if not paid m tlu-ee years, the property is forfeited 
to the lender, be it what it may. 



171 



CHAPTER V. 



Revenue — Commerce — Currency — Army — Navy — Slavery- 

The revenue of the cro\\ii is derived from a tenth of all impor- 
tations from abroad, tonnage, export duties, a stated tax on every 
family, and an excise on salt, fisheries, fi-uit-trees, and petroleum. 
Except the tax on families, which is generally requii-ed in specie, 
these are taken in kind. Whatever the government is obliged to 
purciiase, is genei-ally paid for m articles so obtained. A small 
part is exchanged for the precious metals. No tax is levied on 
lands or personal property'. Unmarried men are not taxed, except 
in bearing their proportion of the assessment on families. The 
roj'al treasuiy is further replenished by fimes, escheats, confisca- 
tions, presents, the produce of crown lands, and ivorj, all of which 
belongs to the king. 

Aibitrary assessments are made from time to time on particular 
pro\inces, districts, cities, or villages, from which the people have 
no escape. The royal order for a certain amount is transi^iitted 
to the local chief, who proportions at his pleasure the part each 
family shall pay, and takes care always to le\'y a larger sum than 
he is required to transmit If a few men or boats are required, 
he is almost sure to call on those whom he knows ^Aill pay to be 
excused ; and thus makes it an opportunity for taxing to his own 
benefit. The same is done when artificers or soldiers are re- 
quired. Thus the general government is really poor, while the 
people are oppressed. It of course often happens that uidi^iduals 
assessed lor their proportion of these multifarious exactions plead 
poverty. Li such cases, the stocks or the ratan soon extract 
consent, and often compel persons to sell their little property, or 
even their childien, to sati^jfy the demand. 

All the worst features of this horrible system are seen in the 
case of the Keu-ens, Toungthoos, Zebains, and other tribes mixed 
among the Burmans, and treated as mferiors and vassals. These 
j)Oor creatures are taxed about fifteen ticals per family per zinnum, 
besides being subject to the exactions above named. 

Princes, governors, and other principal ofiicers, are allowed to 



172 REVENUE — COMMERCE. 

collect, for tlieir own benefit, the taxes from specified villages or 
districts, and generally exercise an unbridled s})irit of extortion. 
Lower chiefs have the costs of litigation, &c. for their support, 
to which they add the profits of shameless bribery. The meuJiesl 
subordinates contrive to make their posts lucrative; and even the 
keeper of a city gjite expects occasional fees for allowing persons 
to pass through v.ith their common burdens. 

Ol' course, the welfore of eveiy little province depends greatly 
on its local ruler. The only remedy, when exactions become in- 
tolerable, is to remove into a district more equitably governed. 
Such a course is necessarily attended with loss and inconve- 
nience ; and sooner than resort to it, the people endure much and 
long. It is, however, by no means uncommon for them to seek 
this relief. As the grants of district revenues are made by the 
fiat of the king, and revoked at his pleasure, no great man is sure 
of continued wealth. The loss of favor at coint is attended with 
the immediate loss of his estates. All the local agents and offi- 
cers being dependent on their feudal lord, they, too, hold an 
uncertain tenure. Thus, from highest to lowest, there is no en- 
couragement to attempt the improvement of land or people. In 
all its raznifications, the government is a system of covetousness. 

Among the possessions of the king, Ave must not omit to notice 
his elepliants. He is regarded as owning all in the kingdom, and 
has generally from one to two thousand which have been caught 
and tamed. The white elephant, of which there is now but one, 
is estimated beyond all price. He is treated like a prince of the 
blood, and has a suite comj)osed of some of the most prominent 
officers in tlie court. Indeed, the vulgar actually pay him divine 
honors, though this is ridiculed by the intelligent. 

Burmah has considerable foreign commerce, but wholly carried 
on in foreign bottoms. The natives, however, perform coasting 
voyages, which they sometimes extend to Mergui and Chittagong, 
and, in rare cases, to Calcutta, Madras, and Penang. 

The limited extent of sea-coast, now left to Burmah, fnniisbes 
but two good harbors, namely, Rangoon and Bassein. These are 
both excellent ; but the latter has very little trade, and foreign 
vessels never go there. 

The harbors in the British possessions are inferior to these. 
Mergui is verj' safe and easy of access, but very small. Amherst 
is middling, but approachable only by a narrow channel, wliich 
extends aci'oss the tide. Ships of three hundred tons or more 



BCRMAH. IJ2 

may with caution go up to Maulinain, the channel behig well 
buoyed, and pilots always to be had, at Amherst. 

The number of clearances of square-rigged vessels from the 
port of Rangoon amounts to about a hundred annually. 

The exports ai'e teak-wood, cotton, ivoiy, wax, cutch, and stick 
lac, and in small quantities, lead, copper, arsenic, tin, edible birds' 
nests, indigo, amber, tobacco, honey, tamarinds, gnapee, gems, 
sharks' fins, orpiment, sapan-wood, and sea-slugs. The nine 
last-named articles are of such limited amount as scarcely to de- 
sei've notice. By far the most important item is teak, which 
is chiefly sent to Calcutta and Madi'as. The value of this article 
alone amounted, in former years, to £200,000 per annum. It is 
now not more than a fifth part of that quantity. About two million 
pounds of raw cotton is sent to Dacca, where it is used in the 
manufacture of the fine muslins for which that place has been so 
celebrated. The Burman collector informed a merchant at Ava, 
that about thirty million pounds are sent up the L-rawaddy, annual- 
ly, to China ; but Colonel Burney estimates it at about four millions. 
Nearly four millions per annum are sent to Arracan. None is 
ex])orted in the seed. The sea-slug is derived from the coasts 
of Mergui. It is commonly called Biche de mer. It is a large 
mai-ine worm, somewhat resembling a leech, which, when prop- 
erly cm-ed, is regarded as a great luxury by the Chinese. The 
mode of curing is to boil them in salt water, and then drj', or 
perhaps smoke them. There ai'e thi'ee prmcipal kinds — black, 
red, and white. The white sell at ten to twelve dollars per picul, 
fone huntb-ed thirty-three pounds,) the red for twenty-five dollars, 
and the black for fifty dollars. Of each of these there are various 
sizes. Some, when dried, are seven or eight inches long, and one 
and a half in diameter; others are not larger than a man's finger. 
The sharks' fins have a skin which is valued for polishing substances 
m the manner of fine sand-paper. Their chief value is for the 
tendons, which ai-e an aiticle of food with the Chinese. They 
are drawn out and di'ied, resembling in this state silver wire, and 
are used in soup, as the Italians use vermicelli. Gnapee is made 
from prawns, shrimps, or any cheap fish, salted and pounded 
into a consistent mass. It is frequently allowed to become par- 
tially putrefied in the process. It is sometimes called in com- 
merce Balachong. 

An active trade is carried on with Chma, chiefly by way of 
Yunnan. Small caravans begin to aiTive at Ava from that prov- 
ince, in December. About the first of February, the great cara- 



174 COMMERCE. 

van arrives, and aftenvard smaller ones, till tlie first of IMarrb. 
The smaller consist of fifty, a hundred, or two hundred men, 
and the great one of about a thousand. Each man has several 
ponies, or mules, sometimes fifteen or twenty, who can-}', in j)an- 
niers, from one hundred to two hundred pounds. Being twenty- 
five days on the road, the beasts are in low condition. They are 
guided by large, black, shaggy dogs, some of which go l>etbre, and 
others fetch up stragglers. These are sometimes sold at Ava at 
from twenty to thirty ticals ; but they genei'ally pine away in the 
hot season, and die. 

The Chinese mart, where these caravans stop, is at Madah, 
thirteen miles north of Umerapoora; inhabited chiefly by Cas- 
sayers. Extensive enclosures are there, in whicli the fair is opened, 
while the cattle are sent to graze. They bring raw and floss silk, 
(which the Burmans weave,) satins, velvets, crape, cordage, yellow 
sulphuret of arsenic, tea, spirits, honey, paper, gold leaf, hams, 
shallow iron pans, sweetmeats, dried fruits, walnuts, chestnuts, 
and apples. They take back chiefly raw cotton, Bengal opium, 
British goods, gems, amber, ivoiy, betel-nuts, sharks' fins, and birds' 
nests. Many of these merchants avail themselves of tlie Irra- 
waddy River, for a considerable distance above Ava. Crawfurd 
estimates this interior trade with China to amount to nearly two 
millions of dollars per annum. 

There are several caravans of Shyans, who come annually to 
the city of Ava, where a large suburb is appropriated. They 
come and go in troops of fifty or one hundred, from December to 
March, and amount in the whole to about a thousand. Their 
goods are brought on bullocks, which are in fine order, and often 
on their own backs. They bring a few horses, but only for sale, 
and they are not loaded. Their goods are stick-lac, umbrellas, 
black jackets, cotton cloth of various sorts and colors, lackered 
boxes, (which are far superior to those of Burman manufacture,) 
ground-nuts, sugar, lead, &c. They take back salt, gnapee, dried 
fish, and betel-nuts. 

Monay is a great mart of internal trade, and sends annually to 
Maulmain a trading caravan, and many cattle for the sujjply of 
the British troops. The journey occui)ies from twenty-five to 
thirty days. The amount of the trade is about seventy-five thou 
sand rupees per annum. 

Considerable inland trade is carried on from one part of the 
kingdom to anoiher, by boats and wagons. 

The lower provinces send up the countiy salt, rice, dried 
fish, gnapee, and foreign manidactiu'es ; receiving in return pe- 



BCRMAH. 175 

ti'oleuiii, saltpetre, paper, piece goods, sugar, tamarinds, and 
various other articles. 

In Pegu, a region scmxely equalled in facilities for inland navi- 
gation, trade is carried on almost wholly by boats, and few roads 
exist ; mere paths connect the towns and villages. In the upper 
provinces, which are hilly, and have few boatable streams, good 
roads lue maintained, aiid merchants transmit their goods trom 
town to town, in wagons drawn by oxen. 

The trading vessels, on the Inawaddy, are all constructed on 
the same plan, except those built by or for foreigners. They 
are long, flat, and narrow ; the larger ones being provided with 
outriggers to prevent their oversetting. Oars and setting-poles 
are almost entirely dei)ended upon to propel them, and tracking 
is often resorted to ; but square sails are sj)read, when the wind is 
fair and the water high. Those of the larger sort have one 
mast, and a yard of great length, on which are suspended as 
many sails as the case requires, one being slightly attached to 
the other. A specimen of these is given in the picture of Sa- 
gaing. Smaller boats have the sail stretched between two bam- 
boo masts fastened to the sides near the bow. Of these, a good 
idea may be obtained from the cut on page 75. These sails, in 
very small boats, often consist of the pessos of the boatmen. 

The wagons and carts ai'e superior in construction to those 
of Bengal, and some other parts of India. The wheel consists 
of one strong piece of wood, the length of the diameter, and 
about two feet wide, through which the axle passes, and the 
remainder of the rim is made of fellahs. See picture on 
page 90. 

When used for merchandise, they are well covered with bam- 
boo mats, over which a painted cloth is often spread. A travel- 
ling team consists of four or six bullocks, and proceeds about 
15 miles a day ; a spare bullock or two following, in case of any 
becoming sick or lame. Merchants generally go m companies, 
and at night draw up the wagons in a circle, to secure them and 
their cattle from wild beasts. Within this circle the drivers 
and their passengers light theu- fires, dress their food, attend 
tlieir cattle, tell their romances, and pass the night. 

Not tlie slightest restriction is laid on merchants or traders 
from any nation. On the contrary, they are invited and en- 
couraged ; and generally accunuilate property. They may go 
and come, or settle, in any part of the kingdom. 

In the Tenasserim and Arracan provinces, no duties are levied 
on any articles from any countiy ; and probably will not be, for 



176 CURRENCY. 

many years. The policy is to open markets for English manu- 
factiu-es ; and this is gradually being done, not only in the prov- 
inces under their sway, but m adjacent districts, especially the 
Shyan country round Monay. 

The commerce of particular cities and towns, such as Ran- 
goon, Maulmain, &c., is moi'e fully stated in my accounts of those 
places. 

The countiy has no coinage. Silver and lead pass in frag- 
ments of all sizes, and the amount of eveiy transaction is regu- 
larly weighed out ; as was done by the ancients. Gen. xxiii. 16. 
Ezra viii. 25. It is cast by tlie assayers, in thin round cakes, 
weighing two or three ticals, but is cut up with mallet and chisel, 
to suit each sale. The price of a thing, therefore, is always stated 
in weight, just as if we shoidd say, in answer to a question of price, 
"an ounce," or "a dram." When an appearance like ci-ystal- 
lization, is upon the centre of the cake, it is known to be of a 
certain degree of alloy, and is called "flowered silver." Of 
this kind, which is called Huet-nee, the tical is worth fifteen per cent, 
more than the Sicca rupee. The Dyng has the flowered ap- 
pearance over all the cake, in larger and longer crystals ; and is 
cast into cakes weighing about twenty ticals ; but varies exceed- 
ingly in fineness, being of all qualities, from Huet-nee to ten 
per cent purer. It is assumed to be five per cent, purer. 

An inferior kind of silver, even to twenty-five per cent, alloy, 
circulates freely, for smaller barter. The people, however, are 
not deceived in its quality, for the degree of purity is detected 
by them with great readiness, chiefly by the appearance left on 
tlie cake at cooling. 

Silver, in passing from hand to hand, becomes more and more 
alloyed, so that, when a man is asked the price of a thing, he says, 
" Let me see your money ? " He then regulates his charge by 
the quality of the silver, and a piece is chopped off to meet the 
bill ; change, if any, being weighed in lead. 

Gold is scarcely used as a circulating medium, being absorbed 
in gilding sacred edifices, or in jewels. By Burman estimate, 
gold is eighteen times the value of silver. It often rises to 
twenty or more, when the people are compelled to obtain it at 
any price, to pay their tax toward the gilding of some pagoda. 

Small payments are made in lead. Each vender in the bazar 
has a basket full of this lead. Its general reference to silver 
is about five hundred to one. It varies exceedingly, however, 
in its proportion ; sometimes fifteen viss of lead is given for a 



BURMAH. 177 

tical, and sometimes only seven or eight, at Ava. In distant parts 
of tlie country, where tJie silver is more alloyed, tliree or lour 
viss is giveji lor a tical. 

The late king, Menderagyee, attempted to introduce small 
silver coin, which he made with a mint establishment imported 
tiom England. But he required his ticals to pass for sixty per 
cent, above their real worth, and the copper for nearly three times 
its worth. The consequence was a universal stagnation of 
business ; and, after urging his law so far as to execute some for 
contumacy, he was at length obliged to let silver and lead pass 
by weight, according to their real worth, as before. The people 
ai-e not anxious for coin. They camiot trust their rulers ; they 
love higgling in bargains ; they make a profit on their money, 
as well as goods, by increasing its alloy ; and a lumierous class 
of assayers, or brokers, called Pwa-zahs, (by foreigners, Poy-zahs,) 
subsist by melting uj) silver, to imi)rove or deteriorate it as they 
are desired. This they do before the owner's face, and have 
otdy the crucible and scoriae for their trouble. 

At Rangoon, the 3Iadras rupee circulates generally for a tical ; 
and along tlie rivers up to Pi-ome, it is known, and will be re- 
ceived. But at the ca})ital, and throughout the interior, it is 
weighed, and deemed an inferior silver. In Arracan and the Te- 
nasserim provinces, rupees, pice, and pie, now circulate as in 
Bengal, and money is scarcely ever weighed. 

The common rate of interest, when collateral security is de- 
posited, is two or three per cent, a month ; when there is no secu- 
rity, four or five per cent. If the interest become equal to the prin- 
cipal, the debt is cancelled. Creditors, therefore, exact new notes 
from their debtors every few months, if the interest be not paid. 

Slaveiy exists throughout the kingdom and its dependencies, 
and of course in the provinces lately ceded to the British. It is 
produced l)Oth by debt and capture. Around Ava, most of the 
slaves are prisoners of war, and their descendants. In other 
I)laces they are chiefly bond-debtors. A few ai-e annually intro- 
duced through a slave trade habitually carried on along the fron- 
tiers. I cannot learn that Burmans themselves engage in this 
traffic, but they do not hesitate to purchase. Muniporians and 
Arrac'anese are brought into Ava, especially on the Siam fron- 
tier, where they are often caught and carried across the iil-de- 
fined boundary. The entire number of persons brought into 
bondage by this slave trade is proportionably small. Debtor 
slaves are numerous in every part of the country. The king's 

VOL. I. 20 



1T8 SERVITUDE. 

brother told me he estimated then* proportion to the rest of tJie 
population as one to seven or eight. This might be true at Ava, 
but I think it much more than the general average. Persons 
borrowing money, mortgage themselves when unable to give other 
securitj', and become servants to the lender, till the money is paid. 
The sum borrowed is sometimes very small, perhaps only a lew 
rupees; but this makes no difference in the condition, or in the 
services retjuired. 

In Burmah Proper there is no remuneration towards liquidating 
the debt ; so that the person continues in bondage for life, except 
the money can somehow be obtained. In the provinces ceded to 
Britain, it is provided by law, that the debt shall diminish at the 
rate of four })ice (about three cents) per day, by which process 
freedom is ultimately obtained. The master has power to in- 
flict corj)oreal and other punishments on bond-servants as on 
other slaves, but not to the extent of drawing blood. They are 
also bought and sold without their consent, but may change 
masters at pleasure by obtaining a person to offer for them the 
amount of the debt. On the sum being tendered by the servant, 
the master is not at liberty to refuse. 

The progeny of servants are free. By the written laws, if a 
man become father to a male child by his slave, he may keep it, 
but the woman is thenceforth free. If it be a female child, the 
father and mother are considered to own but half; and if she pay 
or procure to be jiaid the other half, the child is necessarily free. 
But this rule is obsolete ; and, by universal custom, a slave who 
bears to her master a child of either sex is free. If she choose 
to remain, he is obliged to sup})ort her as his wife. Fathers may 
pledge their wives and children for money borrowed, or, in other 
words, sell them, as tl:e money is often taken up without intention 
of repayment. The only escape from slavery for life, in such a 
case, is for the person to obtain by some means the amount due. 
Such sales are very common, as a man seldom has any other se- 
curity to give ; but in most cases, a man redeems his family as 
soon as he can. 

Slaves are not treated with more severity than hired laborers. 
A state of society where the modes of living are so simj)le, ren- 
ders the condition of the slave little different from that of his 
master. His food, raiment, and lodging, among all the middling 
classes at least, are not essentially different. Being of the same 
color, they and their children incorporate without difficulty with 
the mass of the people on obtaining freedom. The same fact tends 
to ameliorate their comlition. lii fine, their state does not much 



SLAVERY DEURKK OF CIVILIZATION. 



179 



differ from that of liired servants who liave received their w^agea 
for a long time in advance. Belonging to persons in the higher 
conditions does not increase tlie severity of the bondage ; for 
though the distinction is greater, the services are less. Many- 
slaves live at their own houses, just as other people, but liable to 
be called on for labor, which, in many cases, is required only at 
certain seasons of the year. 




Irri^Uag a Field. 



isn 



CHAPTER VL 

Extent of Boodhism — Meeuiing of the Term — Antiquity of the System — 
History of Gaudama — The next Boodh — Tlie Bedagat — Theory of the 
Universe — Tlie Four Islands — Tliis Island, or the Earth — Origin and 
Fall of 3Ian — Celestia] Regions — Hells — No Eternal God — Universe 
eternal — Moral Code — Merit — Discourse of Gaudama — Religious 
Edifices — Images — Impressions of Gaudama's Foot — Worship — Of- 
ferings — Public Days — Superstitions — Nat-worship — Priests ; their 
Dress, Residences, Morals, Office, Support, Numbers, Orders, Funerals — 
Priestesses — Sects — Toleration — Remarks. 

Boodhism is, probably, at this time, and has been for many 
centuries, the most j)revalent form of religion upon earth. Half 
of the population of China, Lao, Cochii.-China, and Ceylon ; all 
of Camboja, Siam, Burmah, Thibet, Tartary, and Loo-choo ; and a 
great part of Japan, and most of the other islands of tlie southern 
seas, are of this faith. A system which thus enchains the minds 
of half the himian race, deserves the attention of both Christians 
and philosophers, however fabulous and absurd. 

Cliinese accounts make the introduction of Boodhism into that 
empire to have occurred about A. D. 65. Marshman supposes 
the Siamese and Laos to have received the system about three 
centin-ies before Christ. A very great increase of the Boodhist 
faith is known to have occurred in China early in the sixth 
century, which may have resulted from the flight of priests with 
him, about that time, from the persecution of tlie Brahminists. 

Boodh is a general term for divinity, and not the name of any 
particular god. There have been innumerable Boodlis, in dif- 
ferent ages, among different worlds, but in no world more than five, 
and in some, not any. In this world, there have been four Boodhs, 
viz. Kau-ka-than, Gau-na-gOng, Ka-tha-pa, and Gaudama. In the 
Siamese language, these are called Kak-a-san, Ko-na-gon, Kasap, 
and Kodom. One is yet to come, viz. Aree-ma-day-eh. 

It has lieen often remarked, that Gaudama was one of the incar- 
nations of Vishnu, and appeared in the form of a cow. This idea 
has jirobably originated with the Hindus, and is advanced to sup- 
port their assertion, that this religion is a branch of theirs. But no 
two systems can be more opposite, or bear less evidence of one 
being derived from the other. Biahminism has incarnations, but 
Boodhism admits of none, for it has no permanent God. If, in 
its endless metemi)sycliosis, any being should descend from the 



BUR?.IAII. 181 

Jiif^hest forms of existence, to take human nature, it would not be 
an incarnation of Deity, but a real degradation of being, and the 
person so descending would become, literally, a man. If he ever 
rise again, it must be by another almost infinite change, now to 
better, and now to worse, as merit is gained or lost. While 
Hinduism teaches one eternal deity, Boodhism has now no god. 
That has a host of idols; this only one. That enjoins bloody 
sacrifices ; this forl>ids all killing. That requires atrocious self- 
tortures ; this inculcates fewer austerities than even Popery. That 
makes lying, fornication, and theft, sometimes commendable, and 
describes the gods as excelling in these enormities ; this never 
confounds right and wrong, and never excuses any sin. That 
makes absorption into Deity the supreme good; this annihilation. 
In fine, I know of no important resemblance. None of the Brah- 
minical books are regarded by Boodhists as authoritative, and no 
practices seem to be derived from them. The fact that Boodhist 
priests often worship kneeling on a cow-hide, is no evidence 
of afliliation to Brahminism, as has been asseried. They dis- 
claim any religious preference for the hide of a cow. It is, in 
fact, just a piece of leather, of any kind, folded up like a book, 
carried either by the priest or his attendant, and laid on the 
ground when he kneels before a pagoda, to keep him from soiling 
his robe. 

There are some reasons for considering Boodhism, if not the 
parent system, yet probably more ancient than Braliminism. In 
various parts of Hindustan are found indications that Boodhism 
was once the prevailing faith. The caves of Elephanta* and 
Eloraf contain images of Gaudama of great antifjuity.! Colonel 
Franklin discovered one of colossal size among the ruins of 
Palibothea. I have one of terra-cotta, bearing inscriptions in the 
ancient Devnagari chai^acter. The Vedas themselves mention 
Boodh. The Poorannas were unquestionably written some cen- 
turies later than the period of Gaudama. The splendid ruins at 
Prambana, Boro Budo, and Singa Sari in the interior of Java, are 
regarded by Sir Stamford Raffles as having claims to the highest 
antiquity of any such structure on the island ; and from Cajjtain 
Baker's descriptions of these, there can be no doubt of their 

* Ou ail island of tliat name near Bombay. 

t 111 the province of Auriiiigabad. 

I For descriptions of these very remarkable caves, see Seel^'s Wonders of 
Ellora; C. IMalet ; Transactions of P.omhay Lit. Soc. art. 9 and 15; Daniel's 
Voyage to India ; Transactions Royal Asiat. Soc. vol. ii. ; Modern Traveller^ 
vol. iv. ; Duperron's Prelim. Disc, to his Zend Avista ; Asiatic Researches 
vol. i. 



182 Religion. 

Boodhist origin. The images are of Boodli. The very term 
Budo, or BudCho, is iu the Javanese language synonymous with 
" ancient " or " pagan." The Javanese speak of tlie times when 
Boodhism was the religion of then* country as the " ancient 
times." Their ancient laws make no distinctions, in the award of 
punishment, in favor of a Brahmin, but always in lavor of a king. 
This is so opposite to the religion of the Hindus, that when they 
were made, Brahmins could have had no ascendency. They, 
however, early acquired power, and when Mahometan ism was 
brought to Java, it found the Hiiidu faith established as the 
religion of the country. 

Brahminism was introduced into Bali betw^een three and four 
hundred years ago, previous to which, the reigning religion was 
Boodhism.* The existence of caste, and the position of Brah- 
mins on the pinnacle of it, indicate the seniority of Boodhism. 
Had the religion of the latter been the progenitor, the whole sys 
tem of caste would have been inherited, almost beyond a doubt. 
We can scarcely imagine that an established priesthood should 
resign such power and rank, as is held by the political, money- 
making, haughty, and sensual Brahmins. 

Boodh is possibly the Budda or Butta of Bochart and Beauso- 
bre ; the Bod of the Arabians ; the Boutta of Clemens Alexandri- 
nus; the Baouth of Gcntil. The pyramids of Egypt are so 
similar in their structure to a pagoda, and so evidently contain 
sacred I'elics, as well as bones of kings, that they beai- strong 
evidences of being Boodhist pagodas. 

The probability seems to be that Brahminism grew out of 
Boodhism, and gained power and numbers iu Hindustan till the 
close of the fu'st century of the Christian era, when they wex'e able 
to commence that persecution of which their own records speak, 
and which drove out the teachers of Boodhism into Farther India, 
whence it extended into China. 

Gaudama was the son of Thoke-daw-da-reh, or, as it is writ- 
ten in Sunscrit, Soodawdaneh, king of Ma-ge-deh, (now called 
Behar,) in Hindustan. He was born about B. C. 620. 

He had previously lived in four hundred millions of worlds, 
and passed through innumerable conditions in each. In this 
world, he had been almost every sort of worm, fly, fowl, fish, or 
animal, and almost every grade and condition of human life. 
Having, in the course of these transitions, attained immense 
merit, he at length was born son of the above-named king. The 

* Crawfurd's Indian Archipelago, book vi. ch. 2. 



183 



moment he was born, he jumped upon his feet, and, spreadmg out 
his arms, excUiin led, " Now am I tlie noblest of men ! This is the 
last time I shall ever be born ! " His height, when grown up, was 
nine cubits. His ears were so beautifully long, as to hang upon 
his shoulders ; his hands reached to his knees ; his fingers were 
of equal length ; and with his tongue he could touch the end of 
his nose ! All which are considered hrefragable proofs of his 
divinity. 

When in this state, his mind was enlarged, so that he remem- 
bered his former conditions and existences. Of these he re- 
hearsed many to his followers. Five hundred and fifty of these 
narratives have been preserved, one relating his lite and adven- 
tures as a deer, another as a monkey, elephant, fowl, &c., &c. 
The collection is called Dzat, and forms a very considerable part 
of the sacred books. These legends are a fruitful source of de- 
signs for Burman paintings. Of these I purchased several, which 
do but bring out into visible absurdity the system they would 
illustrate. 

He became Boodh in the thirty-fifth yeai* of his age, and re- 
mamed so forty-five years, at the end of which time, having per- 
formed all sorts of meritorious 
deeds, and promulgated excellent 
laws, fer and wide, he obtained 
" nicban," that is, entered into an- 
nihilation, together with five hun- 
dred priests, by whom he had 
been long attended. This oc- 
curred in Hindustan, about two 
thousand three hundred and 
eighty years ago, or B. C. 54(3. 
The Cingalese make his death 
to have occurred B. C. 542, and 
the Siamese, who also reckon 
time from that era, make it B. C. 
544. At his death, he advised 
that, in addition to obeying his 
laws, his relics and image should 
be worshipped, and pagodas built 
to his memory, till the develop- 
ment of the next Boodh. He is in- 
variably represented in the same 
manner, except that sometimes he 




184 RELIGION. 

is made to wear a crown, necklace, ornaments on his arms, &c. 
The connnon representation is given in my Bible Dictionary ; the 
other is exhibited in the accompanying cut. I have seen them of 
ail sizes, from half an inch long, to seventy-five feet — of wood, 
stone, brass, brick, clay, and ivory. 

The next Boodh is to appear in about seven or eight thousand 
years from the present time. His height will be eigiity cubits ; 
his moiith will be five cubits wide, and the length of the hairs 
of his eyebrows five cubits. Tlie precise time of his arrival is 
not predicted. 

No laws or sayings of the first three Boodhs are extant. Those 
of Gaudama were transmitted by tradition, till four hundied and 
fifty years after his decease, when they were reduced to writing in 
Ceylon, that is, B. C. 94. These are the only sacred books of the 
Burmans, and are all in the Pali language. They are comprised 
in three divisions, or books, viz. Thoke, Winnee, and Abeeda- 
mah. Each of these is divided into distinct books, or sections. 
The whole is called tke Bcdagat. Copies of parts of these works 
are not scarce, though found chiefly with the priests. Entire 
copies aie rare. Some of tliem are truly elegant, the leaf being 
covered with black varnish, as fine and glossy as enamel, and 
over this the words written in gold letters. 

They are all in the same form, and strung on a cord. The 
ontsides are often defended by a handsomely carved and gilded 
board, of the same size as. the leaves. The strings with which 
they are tied are about an inch wide, and a fathom long, with 
some sentence woven m with the texture. These are either 
some quotation from a sacred book, or some pious sentiment 
One of those in my possession reads thus : — " This book-string is 
offered you, with affectionate regard, to tie up your sacred book ; 
that precious book where you will find the door by which to 
enter Nicban." 

The cosmogony of the Bedagat is not precisely alike in the 
different books ; and even in the same book inconsistencies often 
occur. The following sketch therefore, though derived from the 
best informed priests and missionaries, differs in some respects 
from various statements which have appeared, and is to be re- 
ceived as the scheme set forth in such books as my informants 
had read. 

The universe is composed of an infinite number of systems, 
called Sak-yas. These systems touch each other at the circum- 
ference, and the angidar spaces between them are filled up with 
very cold water. Each side of these spaces is three thousand 



BURMAH. Ig5 

uzenas long. Of these innumerable systems, some are constantly 
becoming chaotic, and reproduce themselves in course of time. 
Of these formations and dissolutions there was never a beginning, 
and vi^ill never be an end. 

Each system consists of a great central mountain surrounded 
by seas, and four great islands, each surrounded by five hundred 
smaller ones, and with celestial and infernal regions. Of this 
great mountain, the eastern side is of silver, the western of glass, 
the northern of gold, and the southern of dark ruby. It is called 
Myenmo, and is eighty-four thousand uzenas high. Its base is 
equally deep. The top is flattened to a plain forty-eight thousand 
uzenas in diameter. Seven chains of mountains, and seven great 
rivers or seas, encircle the mount on every side. 

The four great islands have each a shape, to which that of the 
smaller ones belonging to it, is exactly conformed. Ours is oval, 
the western is round, the northern is a parallelogram, and the 
eastern semilunar. The color of each set of islands is derived 
from that side of the mountain next to them. The inhabitants 
have both their color and the shape of their faces conformed to 
that of the island on which tliey dwell. Those on the eastern 
islands are nine cubits high, those on the western six, those of 
the northern thiiteen. The inhabitants of the eastern and west- 
ern islands practise Jigriculture and the arts, much as we of the 
southern do ; but those of the northern have no such employments. 
A tree is there wiiich yields all manner of garments, meats, fish, 
&c. They have no sorrows or pains ; and every individual lives 
just a thousand years. Between the great islands ships cannot 
pass. The sea there rises in waves sixty or seventy uzenas high, 
and contains fishes six hundred and seven hundred uzenas long, 
the mere movement of whose bodies often creates tempests 
which reach hundreds of uzenas ! 

This earth is the southern cluster of islands, and we are living 
on the large one. It is a convex plane, not a sphere, and is di- 
vided by mountains and navigable seas. Its diameter is ten 
thousand uzenas, and the thickness of the crust or surface on 
which we live is two hundred and forty thousand uzenas. Be- 
low this is water twice as deep as the earth is thick. The whole 
is supported on a stratum of air twice as deep as the water, 
and which supports itself by internal concussions or explosions. 
Beneath is vacuum. 

In the other three islands and their dependencies, the inhabit- 
ants have always had the same length of life. But in ours, the 
period constr.ntly varies. At fii'st, our race lived as many years 



1S6 RELIGiOX 

as there would be drops of rain if it rained three years incesscint- 
iy. Li a Siamese version of the same book, it is given as a period 
of yeaj's embracing one hundred and sixty-eight ciphers. Fall- 
ing off in viitue ajid correct liabits, the term gradually contracted, 
in the course of myriads of ages, to ten years.* Then mankind 
was led to reflect and reform, and the period gradually enlarged, 
as they became more teiriperate and correct, till it rose even to the 
primitive duration. By succeeding degeneracy, it gradually con- 
tracted again to ten. Of these increases and diminutions there 
have been eleven, and will be fifty-three more, before the sakiya 
system, to which we belong, will be again destroyed. At this 
time, the period of life is contracting through our increasing de- 
generacy, and has fallen to eiglity years. 

The inhabitants of the three other islands and their dependen- 
cies are always reproduced in the same island. But our world 
has this advantage, that by merit we may rise to the several 
heavens, and even to Nicban itself. 

When, by the power of fate, a system is to be destroyed, it oc- 
curs either by fire, water, or wind. The process of renovation is 
exemplified in the following account of our own world, which, 
like the others, has repeatedly been destroyed and renewed. 
After lying in a state of chaos many ages, the crust of the earth 
recovered firmness, and was covered with a thin crust of sweet 
butter. The grateful fragrance ascending to the heavens, celes- 
tial beings were filled with desire to eat it, and, assuming human 
shape, came down in large numbers. Their bodies were lumi- 
nous, and they needed no other light. Becoming quarrelsome 
and corrupt, the delicious crust disap])ears, and their bodies be- 
come dark. In their distress, the sun appears ; and afterward, 
the moon and stars. Compelled now to seek other food, they 
find rice growing without a husk, and thus needing no labor. 
Fire, spontaneously issuing from the stones, cooks it. This gross 
food at length excited various ])assions, and mankind became di- 
vided into sexes. Marriage fol'owed. The race degenerating 
still more, Avas obliged to choose a king. Quarrels multiplj^ and 
men disperse over the world. Climate, water, and food, then 
produce the diversities we see among nations. 

The celestial regions consist of twenty-six heavens, one above 
another ; and the infernal regions of eight principal hells, 

* It is exceedingl}' remarkable how universal, among all nations, is the 
tradition, that our rare wus orig-inally pure and happy, but, becomins; corrupt, 
fell from their high enjoyments, ajid became heir to the sorrows we now see. 



BURMAH. ]87 

eacli suiTOunded by sixteen smaller ones. The base of JMyennio 
Mount is inhabited by dragons, great birds, and animals of un- 
known sha];es. The middle region constitutes the lower of the 
six infijrior heavens, and is inhabited by powerful beings, called 
Seedoo-mahah-rajah. The sunnnit is the next inferior heaven, 
called Tuh-iva-ting-tha. Above, in open space, ai^e the four 
others, viz. Ya-inali^ Toke-the-dah, Par-an-ing-nieta, and JEtha- 
wa-dee. The inhabitants of a!l these are called .Yats. They 
never perform servile labor, for ti'ees bear in profusion every 
object of necessity or gratification. The term of their lives is 
about nine million times longer than the present term of ours. 
Their children are born with the degree of maturity that oui-s 
have at fil'teen j'ears old. What we call thunder, is the noise they 
make when at play ; and rain is produced by the agitation they 
make in the air in running about. 

In these first six heavens, the inhabitants have body and soul, 
like ourselves ; in the next sixteen, they are pure matter ; and in 
tlie last four, pure spirit. 

The aim of mortals is to attain, after death, to Tah-wa-tiug- 
tha, the diameter of which is the same as this earth. Like the 
abodes of the Nats, it abomids in good things, of which the Be- 
dagat contains copious and minute details. Among the glorious 
possessions of Thig-ya-men, its king, (whose principal residence 
is fully described,) is a huge white elephant. This animal, named 
Ay-ra-woon, is fifty uzenas high, and has seven heads ; each head 
has seven tusks, and each tusk seven tanks. Li each of these 
tanks grow seven lilies: each lily has seven blossoms; each blos- 
som has seven petals ; each petal bears up seven palaces, and in each 
palace are seven nymphs, or wives of the king, each surroimded 
by five hundred attendants. Another elephant has one great 
head, thirty uzenas long, on which the king occasionally rides , 
and thirty-two smaller heads, for the thirty-two royal princes. 

Of the i)rincipal hells, four inflict punishment by heat, and the 
other four by cold. Each of these is ten thousand uzenas wide. 
In the sixteen minor hells, the wicked suffer every conceivable 
misery, not connected with cold or heat. Worms of vast size 
bite them ; their bowels are torn out, their limbs racked, and their 
bodies lacerated or beaten with dreadful hammers. They are 
pierced with red-hot spits, crucified head downward, gnawed by 
dogs, and torn by vultures. These and a thousand other evils 
are described with minuteness in the Bedagat, and often depicted 
in the drawings of native artists. The inhabitants are six miles 



188 RELIGION. 

high, and are contimially creeping and roaming about, in the vast 
caves of their dreadful abode. 

For killing a parent or a priest, a man will suffer in one of the 
hells of fu-e, during the whole period of a sakiya system. To 
deny or disbelieve the doctrines of Gaudania, uicurs eternal suf- 
fering in fire. Killing men or animals, causing criminals to be 
executed, insulting women, old men or priests, cheating, receiv- 
ing bribes, selling any intoxicating liquor, and parricide, ai'e pun- 
ished in the worst hells. In some books, a regular scale is made 
out for estimating the gradation of guilt in all these crimes. 

Merit may be gained by good conduct in any of these hells, so 
that except the criminality has incurred eternal torment, the suf- 
ferers may rise again to become insects, beasts, men, nats, &c. 

Such ai-e the accounts which fill the sacred books, and with 
which I might fill many pages. It is not important that 1 quote 
more. I have quoted thus much, as part of- the history of the 
human mind, and as necessary to a proper estimate of the Boodli- 
ist religion. 

Of any supreme God, or any eternal self-existent being, Boodh- 
ism affords no intimation ; nor of any creation or providence. 
From the annihilation of one Boodh, till the development of 
another, there is litei-ally no God. Intervening generations must 
worship his image, law, and priests, and for their rules of life 
keep the sayings of tlie last Boodh, viz. Gaudania. 

Not only has the universe and all its sakiya systems existed 
from eternity, but also the souls of all the inhabitants, whether 
animals, men, or celestials. These souls have from eternity been 
transmigrating from one body to another, rising or falling in the 
scale of existence and enjoyment, according to the degree of^ 
merit at each buth. This rise or tall is not ordered by any in- 
telligent judge, but is decided by immutable fate. h\ passing 
through these various forms of existence, the amount of sorrow, 
endured by each soul, is incalculable. The Bedagat declares 
that the tears shed by any one soul, in its various changes from 
eternity, are so numerous, that the ocean is but as a drop in com- 
pai'isou ! Existence and sorrow are declared to be necessaiy 
concomitants; and therefore "the chief end of man" is to finish 
this eternal round of changes, and be annihilated. 

The great doctrines of this faith are five ; viz. 1. The eternal 
existence of the universe, and all beings. 2. Metempsychosis. 
3. Nicban, or annihilation. 4. The appearance, at distant periods, 
of beings who obtain deification and subsequent anniliilation. 
5. Tlie obtaining of merit. Of the first four of these, enough 



BUKMAH. 139 

has l)een already said. The last is more deserving of notice, 
embrarini^, as it docs, the whole system of morals. 

Merit consists in avoiding sins, and performing virtues ; and 
the degree of it is the sole hope of the Boodhist. The forgive- 
ness of sins, and the receipt of favor through the merit of 
another, are doctrines unknown. That suffering can be hi any 
way regarded as a blessing, is to him absurd. 

The sins which are to be avoided are described in a moral 
code, consisting of five principal and positive laws: — 1. Thou 
shalt not kill. 2. Thou slialt not steal. 3. Thou shalt not com- 
mix adultery. 4. Thou shalt not lie. 5. Thou shalt not drink 
any intoxicating liquor. These are explained and branched out 
so as to include all sins of the same kind, under each head. 
The first of these laws is extended to all killing even that of 
aniinals for food. The vei-y religious will not kill vermin. War 
and capital punishments are considered forbidden by the fust 
law. 

Sins are divided into three classes: — 1. Those of the body; 
such as killing, thefl, fornication, &c. 2. Those of the tongue ; 
as falsehood, discord, harsh language, idle talk, &c. 3. Those 
of the mind ; as pride, covetousness, envy, heretical thoughts, 
adoring false gods, &c. 

The sacred books portray strongly the evils of pride, anger, 
covetousness, and inordinate appetites. Men are urged to avoid 
excessive j)erfumes, ornaments, laughter, vain joy, strong drink, 
smoking opium, wandering about the streets in the night, ex- 
cessive fondness for amusements, frequenting bad company, and 
idleness. Those who aspire to Nicban are cautioned to abhor 
sorcery, not to credit dreams, nor be angry when abused, nor 
elated when ai)proved, not to flatter benefactors, nor to indidge in 
scorn or biting jests, and most carefully to avoid enkindliiig stiife. 

The states ofthe mind are resolved into three classes: — 1, When 
we are pleased in the possession of agreeable things. 2. When 
we are grieved and distressed by evil things. 3. When neither 
do good things gratify us, nor evil things distress. The last is 
the best state ; and in it a man is rapidly preparing for Nicban. 
In this there is no small resemblance to the doctrine of the 
Stoics, and some apjjroach to the Christian doctrine of weanedness 
from the world. Some of their books abound in good coni])ar- 
isons ; such as, that he who runs into sinful enjoyments is like a 
butterfly, who flutters round a candle till it falls in; or one who, t^- 
l)y licking honey from a knife, cuts his tongue with the edge. . 
Tliere is scai-rely a prohibition of the Bcdagat, which is not 



190 RELIGION. 

sanctioned by our Holy Scriptui'es ; and the arguments appended 
to them are often just and forcible. 

Merit is of three kuids: — 1. Theela, or the observance of all 
the prohibitions and precepts, and all duties fairly deducible 
from them ; sucli as beneficence, gentleness, integrity, lenity, 
forbearance, condescension, veneration to parents, love to man- 
kind, &c. 2. Dana, or giving alms and offerings. This includes 
feeding priests, building kyoungs, pagodas, and zayats, placing 
bells at pagodas, making public roads, tanks, and wells, planting 
trees for shade or fruit, keeping pots of cool water by the way- 
side for the use of travellers, feeding criminals, birds, animals, 
&c. 3. Bawana, or repeating prayers, and reading religious 
books. Of" this last, there are three degrees, or sorts ; the first 
consisting in merely reciting prayers, or reading thoughtlessly ; 
the second, and more meritorious, is praying or reading, with 
a mind attentive to the exercise ; the tliird, and most excellent, 
is the perforjiimg these exercises with strong desires and awak- 
ened feelings. He who neglects to lay up merit, is compared to 
a man who sets out on a journey tln-ough an uninhabited country, 
beset with wild beasts, and provides himself neither with food 
nor weapons. 

Alms-deeds are meritorious according to the objects on which 
they are bestowed ; accordmg to the following general scale : — 
1. Animals. 2. Conunon laborers, fishermen, &c, 3. Merchants 
and the upper classes, when m necessity, 4. Priests. For alms 
of the first class, the rewards are long life, beauty, strength, 
knowledge, and prosperity, during a hundred transmigrations ; 
for those of the second class, the same, during a thousand 
transmigrations; for the third, the same, during ten thousand* 
for the foui'th, a vastly greater number, but indefinite, being 
graduated according to the degree of sanctity the particular 
priests may possess. Alms given by a poor man are declared 
to be incomparably more meritorious than those given by the 
rich. So great merit is conferred by acts of Dana, that persons 
are distinguished in society by honorable appellations on this 
account. The nwst meritorious deed is to make an idol, and this 
in proportion to its size and value. He who has done this is 
called thenceforth Pi/a-taga. He who builds a pagoda becomes 
a T'sa-det-taga. Next is he who builds a kyoung — kyoung-taga. 
He who has sacred books transcribed, is a Sah-taga, He wiio 
incurs the expenses of making a priest, is Thengan-taga. The 
builder of a zayat is zayai-laga ; the maker of a tank, yay-gon-taga. 



BURMAH. 191 

These, aiid similar titles, are in common use, and are regarded 
with the same respect as squii'e, captain, colonel, deacon, &c., 
are with us. 

In attaining Baivana, the tiiird sort of* merit, a prominent ex- 
ercise, is the frequent repetition of the words '■^ aneit-sa, doke-kha, 
Jlh-nah-taJ'^ The fiist of these words implies our liability to out- 
ward injuines and evils ; the second, our exposure to mental suf- 
ferings ; the third, our entire inability to escape these evils. The 
repetition of this prayer or soliloquy is of far greater merit than 
even alms-giving. To keep some reckoning in this most im- 
portant pai'ticular, the votary commonly uses a string of beads, 
and passes one through his fingers at each repetition. 

Many discourses said to have been delivered by Gaudama, 
are given in the Bedagat. In these, the duties of parents, chil- 
dren, husbands, wives, teachers, scholars, masters, slaves, &c., are 
di'awn out and urged, in a maimer which would do honor to any 
casuist. 

The following is part of one of these, addressed to a distin- 
guished personage, who sought his instruction how to avoid 
evil : — 

" Know thou, that to keep from the company of the ignorant, 
and choose that of learned men ; to give honor to whom it is due ; 
to choose a residence proper to our station, and adapted for 
procuring the common wants of life ; and to maintain a prudent 
carriage, — are means of preserving a man from evil doings. The 
comprehension of all things that are not evil, the exact loiovvl- 
edge of the duties of our station, and the observance of modesty 
and piety in our speech, are four excellent modes of renouncing 
wickedness. 

"By ministering a proper support to parents, wife, and family; 
by purity and honesty in every action ; by alms-deeds ; by observ- 
ing the divine precepts ; and by succoring relations, — we may 
be preserved from evil. By such a freedom from faults, that not 
even the mferior part of our nature manifests any affection for 
tliem ; by abstinence from all intoxicating di-ink ; by the continual 
practice of works of piety ; by allowing respectfulness, humility, 
and sobriety before all ; and gratitude to our benefactors ; and, 
finally, by listening often to the preaching of the word of God, — 
we overcome evil inclinations, and keep ourselves far from sin. 
Docility in receiving the admonitions of good men ; frequent visits 
to priests; spiritual conferences on the divine laws; patience, 
frugality, modesty ; the literal observance of the law ; keeping 



192 RELIGIOX 

before our eyes the four states into wliich living creatures pass 
after death; and meditation on the happy repose of Nicbun ; — 
these are distinguished rules for preserving man from wicked- 
ness. 

"That intrepidity and serenity which good men preserve amid 
the eight evils of life ; (abundance and want, joy and sorrow, 
popularity and abandonment, censure and praise ;) tlieir freedom 
from fear and inquietude; from the dai'k mists of concupiscence; 
and, finally, their insensibility to suffering; — these are fbiu* rare 
gifts, that remove men far from evil. Therefore, O sir ! imjirint 
well upon yom- heart the thirty-eight precepts I have just deliv- 
ered. Let them be deeply rooted there, and see that you put 
them in practice." 

Pagodas are innumerable. In the inhabited parts, there is 
scarcely a mountain peak, bluff' bank, or swelling hill, without 
one of these structures ujion it. Those of Pegu and Siam ai"e 
all formed upon one model, though the cornices and decorations 
are according to the builders' taste. In general, they are entirely 
solid, having neither door nor window, and contain a deposit of 
money, or some supposed relic of Gaudama. From the base 
they narrow rapidly to about mid-way, and then rise with a long 
spire, surmounted with the sacred tee. This is the style of 
pagodas shown in my Bible Dictionary, antl in Mrs. Judson's 
Memoir. Some of those around Ava, and especially those at 
Paghan, are less tapering, and more resembling tein|)!es. One 
of these recently built at Ava is shown on page 118. This pagoda 
is new, and was hai-dly fuiished when 1 took it. Much of the 
minute tracery on the stucco is necessarily omiited in a drawing 
on so reduced a scale. 

The sacred tee is of sheet iron, wrought into oi)en work 
and gilded. It of course rusts off in time, and is seldom seen 
on an old structure. Its shape is that of a bell, or the bowl of a 
wine-glass, and may be distinguished in the foreground of the 
landscape of Tavoy. Round the rim are suspended small bells, 
to the clappers of which hang, by a short chain, a sheet-iron leafj 
also gilded. The wind moving the pendent leaf, strikes the clap- 
pers against the bells, and keeps up a pleasant chime. Around 
all chief pagodas are smaller ones, sometimes amounting to 
hundreds, and of great size. Particular descriptions of individ- 
ual pagodas are found in other parts of this book. 

I am not sure of the origin of the term pagoda, applied by 
European winters to this structure. The term is unknown to 



BURMAH. 193 

Burmansor Siamese, The former call it Tsa-dee, and sometimes 
Pra-tsa-dee, but more commonly simply P''}ira — god. The latter 
call it Clui-dee or Pracliadte. 




Burman Zayat. 

Zayats ai*e not excUisively religious buildings. Some are m- 
tended to contain idols, and some are for the accommodation of 
worshippers and travellers, and for town halls. The majority 
contain no idols, and are intended only to afford shelter for wor- 
shippers and travellers. Some of these are mere sheds, open 
on all sides; but in almost all cases, they are built in a far more 
durable and costly manner than dwelling-houses. 



194 RELIGION. 

Eveiy village has a zayat, where the stranger may repose or 
stay for many days, if he please ; and many a time I found them 
a comfortable lodging-place. Like the choultries of Hindustan, 
they are of unspeakable utility in a country destitute of inns, 
and where every house has its full complement of inmates. 

Many zayats, especially near great cities, are truly beautiful, 
and very costly. The ceilings and pillars are not only elabo- 
rately cai-ved, but completely gilded, and the stucco floors rival 
marble in hardness and polish. One of these is given in the 
above cut, which represents a zayat in the enclosure of the great 
pagoda at Rangoon. It has a shrine for Boodh, which is rather 
rare in zayats ; and on the left are some of the huge stone jars 
used to receive the offerings of the worshippers. By an error 
of the engi'aver, they are but one third of the proper size. 

Near all considerable cities are a number of zayats, which 
may be called temples, erected to contain collections of 
idols, amounting in some cases to hundreds. In general, these 
are all colossal, and some are huge. In each collection will 
be found a recumbent image, sixtj^, eighty, or even a hundred 
feet long, made of brick covered with stucco, and often gilded. 
Almost all the idols which are larger than life are thus formed ; 
but so skilful are the artists in working in lime, that the images 
have the appearance of polished mai-ble. Groups of images 
representing Gaudama walking with his rice-pot, followed 
by attendants with theirs, or illustrating some conspicuous pas- 
sage in his life, are not uncommon. 

The doors or gateways of religious 
edifices are generally guarded by huge 
Balus and lions, as they call them. The 
Balu is an evil genius, personified as a 
hideous man, armed with a great club. 
A representation of one of these frightful 
demons is given at the foot of page 109. 
They are oflen of colossal size, but are 
not so uniformly of one pattern, as the 
lions. The lions ai'e always precisely 
alike, however different in size ; and as 
there are no lions in Bui-mah, they have 
stumbled on a representation which horribly caricatm-es that 
lordly beast. 

Sometimes other images are added, as crocodiles, turtles, 
dogs, &c. In the compounds of the best pagodas, are various 




195 



structures, more or less elegant, presented by 
wealthy worshippers. Some of these resem- 
ble umbrellas; others are like shrines; but 
the most common are streamers, fastened to 
a mast. Some of these ai-e truly beautiful. 
They are cylinders of fine book muslin, kept 
round by light hoops of ratan, and ornamented 
with figures cut out of silver or gold paper. 
On the top is the carved and gilded henza, 
or sacred bird — a creature of imagination, 
resembling nothing in heaven above or earth 
beneath. 

Lnages and sacred edifices pass through no 
form of consecration ; and an intelligent 
Burman, when pressed m argument, stren- 
uously denies that he worships these things. 
He claims to use them as Papists do a cruci- 
fix. He places no trust in them, but uses 
them to i-emind him of Gaudama, and in 
compliance with Gaudama's commands. 
Hence he feels no horror at beholding them 
decayed ; and the country is full of sucii as 
have goue to ruin. The merit of making a 
very small pagoda, or image, is much greater than the repairing 
even of the largest. The son, therefore, sufliers the fether's 
structure to sink into ruin, though trifling repairs might prolong 
its existence for years. The builder himself seldom attempts to 
repair the ravages of time, which in this country proceed with 
extraordinary rapidity ; preferring to build anew, if again 
prompted to the same species of piety. That the common 
people do really and truly worship the very pagodas and 
images, is most evident. Indeed, such seldom deny it. Few 
would dare to strike, or deface one. Even the Christians are 
often unable to sununon courage to do such a deed. 

Impressions of Gaudama's foot are shown in various places, and 
receive religious worship. Several of these, not only in Burmah, 
but in Ceylon, Siam, and Lao, are affirmed to have been really 
stamped there by the deity himself, and are adduced as evidences 
of his extensive travels. The rest are avowed copies of these 
impressions, and are more numei'ous. Some ai-e in stone, and 
some in stucco, generally handsomely gilded and canopied by 
some respectable structure. Those of Burmah and Ceylon seem 




]95 RELIGION. 

not to be precisely alike. Below is a Burman copy greatly re- 
duced. I have a full description of the figures in eveiy com- 
partment, but could not get their mystic significations, if they have 
any. The serpents or nagahs, wliich encircle the foot, are al- 
ways added in representations, for ornament. 




Worship is not performed collectively, tliough crowds assemble 
at the same time on set days. Each one makes his offerings, 
and recites his jirayers alone. No priests officiate ; no union of 
voices is attemj)ted. On ajxiving at the pagoda or image, the 
worshipper wa'ks reverently to within a convenient distance, 
and, laying his offering on the ground, sits down behind it, on his 
kjiees and heels, and, placing the palms of his hands together, 



BURMAH. 197 

raises tliem to his forehead, and perhaps leans forward till his 
head touches the ground. This is called the shedo. He then 
utters liis prayers in a low tone, occasionally bowing as before, 
aiid, having finished, rises and carries forward his gift, laying it 
somewhere near the idol or pagoda. Some proceed first to one 
of the gi-eat bells, which hang near, and strike several times with 
one of the deei-'s horns which always lie beneath. Wlien one 
goes alone, this is seldom omitted. 

The prayer consists of the foi-m already quoted, ("Aneitsa, 
Dokekha, Ahnahta,") or of a repetition of certain protestations, 
such as, "I will not lie, I will not steal, I will not kill," &c. Each 
speaks audibly ; but no one is disturbed, though scores kneel side 
by side. No greetings or recognitions are seen ; nothing seems 
to divert their attention ; and the profound humility of both pos- 
ture and gesture, give a solemn aspect to the whole scene. Old 
people, who cannot remember the forms, and persons who are 
diffident of their ability in this exercise, get some priest to wTite 
them a few sentences, which they can*y before the pagoda or idol, 
and, fastening it hi one end of a stick, stick the other end in the 
ground, and put themselves for a time into the posture of prayer 
behind it At Ava, quantities of these may be gathered any 
worship-day. The beads used in worship ai-e made usually of 
black coral, or of the hard shell of the coco-nut There are 
fifty or sixty on a string. Some persons cany them at ail times 
in their hand, especiallj^ the priests, and appear, by passing over 
one at a time, to be saying their prayers, even in the midst of 
conversation. 

Frequently a worshipper spends an entu'e day or night at the 
pagoda, reclining in some of the zayats. When the night is 
chosen, he takes his bed and some refreshments, candles, &c. 
These are so light that tlie most aged persons cany them with 
ease, suspending the bed fi-om one end of a pole, and the water- 
jar, offering, &c., from the other. I often met these people in 
the zayats lying about, reading fi'om palm-leaves, or returning in 
the morning to their homes. They reminded me of the embar- 
rassment I felt, when a child, in reading of our Savior's ordering 
men to " take up their bed and walk." These beds consist of a 
clean mat, which weighs but three or four pounds, and a short, 
round pillow, with sometimes a cloth or sheet. The latter are 
rolled up in the mat, and tied with a twine, so that the whole is 
both light and portable. 

None but priests go to the pagoda without caiTjing some of- 
fering, though it be but a flower, or a few sprigs plucked from a 



198 RELIGI05. 

bush, in passing. A tasteful nosegay is the common gift, but 
those who can afford it earn,", once a week, articles of food and 
raiment The former is always cooked in the nicest manner, 
and delicately arranged in saucers made of the fresh plantain 
leaf Women earn,- their girts in shallow baskets on their heads, 
and men in their hands, or suspended trom the ends of a shoul- 
der-pole. They proceed in groups, gossiping and gay, and dis- 
play their piety with exuberant self-complacency. 

lliere are four days for public worehip in ever}' lunar month; 
viz. at the new and full moon, and se^en days alter each, so that 
sometimes their sabbath occurs after seven days, and sometimes 
after eight. The new and full moons are the principal sabbaths ; 
but few persons observe even all of these. Even those who at- 
tend the pagoda, always continue their business, except during 
the brief absence. The aspect of the city or village, therefore, is 
not changed, and the stranger would not know the day had ar- 
rired, did he not visit the pagoda, or the principal avenues lead- 
ing to it. There is, in fact, no sabbath in Burmah, nor is any re- 
quired by their relision. It is meritorious to observe the day, 
but not sinful to disregard it. 

The number of worshippers at the eliief pagodas, is always 
sufficient on Sundays to produce a large amount of offerings, and 
on such days the slaves of the pagoda take care of such as are 
useful, and divide the whole among themselves. On otlier days, 
dogs and crows consume the offerings, often attacking a gift the 
moment the worshipper quits it, and devouring it without the 
slightest molestation. I used to supply myself sometimes with a 
handsome bouquet from before the idol, walking unmolested 
among prostrate worshippers. Whatever flowers or fragments 
are left to the next morning are swept out like common dirt. 

Burmans are oppressed with a multitude of inconvenient super- 
."titions. They observe dreams, omens, lucky and unlucky days, 
and bebeve in the casting of nati\ities, supematiu^l endowmentSy 
re'ics, charms, witchcraft, in-kiilnerabilitA', &c. The aspect of 
the stars, the howl of dogs, the flight of birds, the involuntary 
motions of the body, the cawing of crows, the manner in which 
fowls lay their eggs, the holes made by rats, and a hundred such 
things, are constantly obser%-ed. A man will not make his canoe 
of the intended tree, if it falls in as im lucky manner, or the knots 
are discovered to be unfortunately arranged. They are especially 
observant of the lines in the palms of one's hand. If the lines on 
the end of the fore-finger are disposed in circles, il indicates 



BCRMAH. 199 

jirosperit}'; if in arcs of a circle, great unbappiuess, &c. Short 
fiugers are regarded as a sign of lasciviousness. 

Amulets and charms are worn by both sexes, but not by a large 
Dumber, as among Hindus. One of tiiese, common among mili- 
taiy men, is the insertion of pieces of gold, or other metal, and 
sometimes small gems, under the skin of the arm, between the 
elbow and shoulder. I Avas allowed, by one of the Christians at 
Ava, to take from Jiis arm several of these. They are of gold, 
Inscribed with cabalistic letters. 

Circumstances, of course, often tend to confirm these imagina- 
tions. The fall of tlie royal spire when the king removed his 
residence from Umerapooi-a was immediately succeeded by the 
news of the capture of Rangoon. Comets ai'e regarded as por- 
tending great disasters, and one appeared dmiiig the advance of 
the British army. 

The fear of witches prevails universally, and physicians de- 
rive much of their profits from the sale of medicines which ai'e 
to give security from their ai-ts. As in other countries, the per- 
sons charged with possessing infernal powers are generally poor 
old women. These sometimes tavor the suspicion for purposes 
of gain, and sometimes are subject to maltreatment Vultures 
and owls are birds of evil omen, and families will sometimes va- 
cate a house on which one of these birds has alighted. The 
tattooing of the body is regarded as a charm. Endeavoring to 
ridicule an individual, once, for the extent to which he had car- 
ried this operation, he gravely assuied me that it rendered him 
invulnerable. Pulling out my knife, and offering to test the asser- 
tion, he instantly declined, aflirming that if he were a good man, 
such would indeed be the effect, but that he was not a good man • 

Many of the people, especially among the Karens, Toungthoos, 
&c., worship Nats, which have been mentioned as inhabiting tlie 
six lower heavens, and are supposed to i)ossess great power in 
human affairs. In honor of these, little huts, resembling a com- 
mon dog-house, are erected on a post; and on another, of the same 
height in front, is fastened a flat board, on which the offerings are 
])laced. Images of Nats ai'e often seen among collections of 
idols, in the capacity of attendants. They bear a human form, 
and are portrayed as being very elegantly dressed. Such figures 
frequently ornament the base of the flag-staffs, and sacred umbrel- 
las erected near pagodas. I never saw any, however, in or near 
the little huts erected for their worship. Feasts are often made to 
them, to avert calamity, or to be healed from sickness. On these 



200 RELIGION. 

occasions, every member of the family, far and near, assemble ; 
and if any be absent, tlie service is considered nullified. 

This worship of Nats forms no part of Boodhism, and is in fact 
discountenanced as heterodox. It seems to be a relic of the an- 
cient polnheism, which prevailed in the country before its pres- 
ent religion was introduced. 

The Burman term applied to a priest is Pon-gyee, or Bon-ghee ; 
literally "gi-eat exemplar," or, "great glory." The Pali term 
Rohan, or " holy man," is seldom used. The Siamese name is 
F^hra-song. Some authors speak of the priests as Tdapoins ; but 
the term is never used by Burmans or Siamese. It seems to have 
been given to the priests by the French and Portuguese, perhaps 
from the custom of carrjing, over their shaven heads, the large 
fan made of Tal-apot leaf. 

Pongjees are not a caste, or hereditary race ; nor, as has been 
remarked, is there any such thing as caste in Burmah. Any one 
may become a priest, and any priest may return to secular life, at 
pleasure. Thousands do, in fact, thus return every year, without 
the least reproach. The fai" greater number enter with the 
avowed purpose of remaining only a few mouths, or years, for the 
acquisition of learning and merit Indeed, the majority of re- 
spectable young men enter the novitiate for a season, not only to 
complete their education, but because the doing so is considered 
botli respectable and meritorious. The more acute and energetic 
reenter society^ and, as the phrase is, " become men again." The 
dull, the indolent, and those who become fond of religious and 
literaiy pm-suits, remain. 

When a youth assumes the yelloAV robe, it is an occasion of 
considerable ceremony, of neighborly festivity, and of emolument 
to the monastery.* The candidate, richly clad, is led forth, on a 
horse handsomely capai-isoned, attended by a train of friends and 
relations, and passes in pomp through the principal streets. Be- 
fore him go women bearing on their heads his future robes of 
profession, and the customary utensils of a priest, with rice, fruit, 
cloth, china cups, &c., intended as presents to the kyoung, and 
its superior. 

This splendor of array bears a striking similarity to the dis- 
play of dress, &c., made by a nun when about to renounce the 
world- Henceforth, at least while he remains a priest, the youth 
is no more to wear ornaments, ride on horseback, or even carry an 

* He who incurs the expense on this occEision, is said to have made a priest, 
and becomes a Thengan-taga or POn-gyee-laga. See page 190, 



BURMAH. 201 

iimbrelliu The candidate is also made to pass an examination as 
to liis belief, motives, &c., and to take upon himself certain vows. 
Priests are not only to obsene all rules binding on common 
peoj)le, but many more. They are bound to celibacy and chas- 
tity ; and if married before their initiation, the bond is dissolved. 
They must not so much as touch a woman, or even a female in- 
fant, or any female animal. They must never sleep under the 
same roof, or travel in the same caiTiage, or boat, with a woman^ 
or touch any thing which a woman has worn. Tf a priest's own 
mother fall into the water, or into a pit, he must not help her out 
except no one else is nigh, and then he must only reach her a 
stick or a rope. They ai'e not to recognize any relations. They 
must not have, or even touch, money; nor eat after the noon 
of the day; nor di-ink without straining the water; nor build a fire 
hi any new place, lest some insect be killed ; 
nor spit in water, or on grass, lest some creature 
be defiled by eating. They must not dance, 
sing, or play upon musical instruments, nor 
stand in conspicuous places, nor wear their 
hair long, or any ornaments, nor have a turban, 
umbrella, or shoes ; and then- raiment must be 
made of rags and fragments gathered in the 
streets. As the burumg sun makes some shel- 
ter absolutely necessary for a shorn, unturbaned 
head, they are allowed to cany their huge fan 
for this purpose, as shown in the cut They 
Priest walking out. niust hold uo sccular office, nor interfere in 
the least with government. Seclusion, pover- 
ty, contemplation, and indifl^erence to all worldly good or evil, 
are henceforth to distinguish them. 

In eating, a priest must inwardly say, " I eat this rice, not to 
please my palate, but to support life." In dressing himself, he 
must say, " I put on these robes, not to be vain of them, but to con- 
ceal my nakedness.'' And in taking medicine, he must say, " I de- 
sire recovery from this indisposition, only that 1 may be more 
diligent in devotion and virtuous pursuits." 

All this strictness, though required in the sacred books, is by 
no means exemplified in the conduct of the priests. They wear 
sandals, carry umbrellas, live luxuriously, and handle money. 
They not only wear the finest and best cotton cloth, but some of 
them the most excel lent silks. They, however, presen e a shadow 
of obedience, by having the cloth first cut into pieces, and then 
neatly sewed together. They even look at women without much 




203 RELIGION. 

reserve. The huge fan, peculiar to priests, Is intended partly to 
l)revent the necessity of their seeing women when preaching, 
&c. ; but the manner in which they are represented in native 
pictures, as looking over them, is not more amusing than true. 

Their di'ess covers much more of the person than that of the 
laity ; indeed, it vails them completely from neck to ankles. It 
consists of two cloths, one put on so as to form a petticoat, and 
fastened with a girdle, the other thrown gracefully over the 
shoulders and romid the neck. The rule is to keep the head 
shaved entirely ; but some permit it to grow an inch or two. 1 
foimd the rule in Siam was to shave the head twice a month ; 
and probably the same prevails in Burmah. Yellow is appro- 
priated as the color for the dress of the priesthood, and it would 
be deemed nothing less than sacrilege in any one else to use it: 
so peculiarly sacred is it held, that it is not uncommon to see one 
of the people pay his devotions m due form to the old gai*ment 
of a priest, hung on a bush to dry, after being washed. 

Kyoungs are found in all cities and villages, and often in very 
small hamlets. As a partial compliance to the law, which forbids 
them to be erected in such places, they are generally placed at 
the outskirts. They ai-e enclosed within an ample space, gener- 
ally set out with fi'uit and shade trees. The ground is kept cleai* 
of grass or weeds, in proportion to the strictness of the superior. 
The kyoungs are always vastly better built than the dwellings of 
even the richest among the laity ; and near the metropolis many 
of them are truly grand. With few exceptions they are built in 
the same mamier as good dwelling-houses, only decoi-ated with 
carved work, and having massive steps of brick and mortar leading 
up to them. The distinctive mark between common and re- 
ligious or royal residences, is always obsei-ved, viz. the stages 
or hips in the roof The number of these breaks depends on the 
beauty, size, and sacredness of the structure. The apartments 
are all on one floor, and often rendered truly imposing by the 
height and decorations of the I'oof I have been in some monas- 
teries of great size, which wei"e solidly gilded, withm and without, 
from top to bottom. 

As to the morality of the priesthood, my infonnation is too 
vague and contradictory to allow me to ventui-e an opinion 
Perhaps, however, this contradictoriness arose from a real diversity 
in the characters of the priests, whom my diflferent informers had 
known. It is certain that, if they choose to transgress, they may 
do so with little danger of detection, by assuming the turban and 
robe of the laity. They cannot be distinguished by their shorn 



BURMAH. 203 

heads, as that is a sign of humiliation practised by all who go 
into mourning for relations. Sometimes half the community 
adopt this sign at the death of some veiy great man or member 
of the royal family. 

Such as their literature is, it is chiefly confined to the priest- 
hood. Few others can so much as read, without hesitation, a 
book they never saw before ; still less understiuid its contents. 
The thousands who "finish their education" in the monasteries, 
furnish but few exceptions to this remark. The nation has ac- 
quired the character of " a reading people " from the fact that 
nearly all males do learn to read in the kyoung. But it is as the 
bulk of the Jews read Hebrew, or ignorant Catholic priests read 
Latin, without understanding any thing they read. 

Their office may be called a sinecure. Few of them preach, 
and those but seldom, and only on special request ; after which 
donations of clothing, &c. ai'e always made to them. On these 
occasions, though only one preaches, 
there are generally several present. 
They sit cross-legged, in a row, on a 
i-aised seat, and each holds up before 
him his fan to prevent distraction by 
looking on the audience, and especially 
to avoid gazing at the women. The 
exact idea may be gained from the pic- 
ture. In public worship, as has already 
been remai'ked, they have no services to 
Priest preaching. perfomi. At fuucrals, they attend only 

when desired, and after reciting the 
prayers retire, Avith liberal gifts borne on the shoidders of boys. 
Mai-riage being utterly unholy, they have no services to render 
there.* Part of them, in most kyoungs, spend a portion of every 
day in teaching the novitiates, and whatever boys may come to 
learn. Deeming it wholly unprofessional to do any kind of work, 
most of tliem spend their time in sheer idleness. During their 
season oflent,as it has been called, the principal priests, especially 
some few of great reputation, are almost every day called to 
preach at some house. Liberal gifts are always exi)ected at the 
close of each sei"vice. 

It is the rule that each priest ])erambulate the streets eveiy 

* It was some time before the Christian converts could be reconciled to Mr. 
Judson's performing the marriage ceremony, or being present in any way. It 
seemed to them absolutely obscene. In Siam, priests are often present on 
these occasions. 




204 RELIGION. 

tuorning, till he receive boiled rice, &c. enough for tlie day. 
From the dawn of day till an hour after sunrise, tliey are seen 
passing to and fro, in groups and singly, carrying on their arm 
the Thabike, which is often sustained by a strap passing over the 
shoulder. They walk on briskly, without looking to the right or 
left, stopping when any one comes out with a gift, and passmg 
on without the least token of thanks, or even looking at the giver. 

The Thabike is a black earthen pot, containing about a peck, 
with a lid of tin or lackered ware, whicli is made to fit when 
inverted, so as to hold little cups of curry, meat, or fruits. The 
more dignified priests omit the morning perambulation, and either 
depend on a share of what their juniors receive, or have their 
own servants, and supply their private table from the bazar, and 
from oft'erings which aie brought them by the devout. Except 
in times of scarcity, the daily supply is superabundant, and the 
surplus is given to day scholars, poor persons, and adherents, 
who perform various services round the monastery. These re- 
tainers are very convenient to the priests in many ways. They 
receive money, which the priests may not openly touch ; go to 
market for such little luxuries as may be wanted ; sell the su- 
perabundant gifts of clothing, mats, boxes, betel-nut, &c. Some 
of the priests are known to have thus become rich. Father 
Sangernumo, who sjient many years among them, declares that 
they make no scruple of receiving even large sums, and tliat 
" they are insatiable after riches, and do little else than ask for 
them."* Sometimes enormous swine are kejit under the mon- 
asteries ; for what purpose I could never learn, except that it is 
meritorious to feed dumb animals. 

The daily gift of food to priests is supposed to be entirely 
voluntary, and doubtless generally is so. But I have often seen 
thein make a full stop before a house, and wait for some time. 
A gift is generally brought at length; but if not, the priest moves 
on without remark. This certai^ily amounts to a demand. If 
any family is noticed constantly to neglect giving, complaint is 
lodged with the ruler, and fines are sure to follow. In some 
parts of the country, the priest, as he goes his round, rings a little 
bell, that all may know of his approach, and be ready. As the 
time of going round is long before the common hour of break- 
fast, families who intend to give to the priests rise before day to 
cook the rice. They give but about a coffee-cup fiiU to each, and 

* In Siam, those who are reputed for learning and sanctity, receive a 
leguJar but small salary from government. 



■ BURMAH. 205 

Stand before their door, dealing it out thus, till the quantity they 
have prepared is gone. They commonly add such fruits as are 
in season ; with segars, betel, candles, and particularly curry, or 
sauce, in small saucers. 

The company of priests is very gi-eat, but I found few places 
where the exact number was known. From the data I was able 
to obtain, I think their proportion to the people is about as one 
to thirty. In some places it is greater, in others less. Ava, with 
a population of two hundred thousand, has twenty thousand 
priests. The province of xlmherst, with thirty-six thousand souls, 
has one thousand and ten. Tavoy, with a population of nme 
thousand, has four hundred and fifty. 

Beside the Ponghees, there are, at Ava, a considerable number 
of lirahmins, who are highly respected. They hold the rank of 
astrologers and astronomers to his majesty, in which they are 
supposed to be eminently skilled, and have committed to them 
the regulation of the calendar. They are consulted on important 
occasions, and give forth auguries, which are received with great 
confidence. The ancestors of these Brahmins ap})ear to have 
come from Bengal, at no distant period. Occasionally, new ones 
come still. 

The priesthood is arranged into a regular hierarchy. The 
highest functionary is the Tlia-thtna-byng' , or archbishop. He 
resides at Ava, has jurisdiction over all priests, and appoints 
the president of every monastery. He stands high at court, and 
is considered one of the great men of the kingdom. Next to him 
are the Ponghees, strictly so called, one of whom presides in each 
monastery. Next are the Oo-pe-ziiis, comprising those who 
have jjassed the novitiate, sustained a regular examination, and 
chosen the priesthood for life. Of this class are the teachers or 
professors in the monasteries. One of these is generally vice- 
president, and is most likely to succeed to the headship on the 
demise of the Pongj'ee. Both these orders are sometimes called 
Riihans, or Yahans. They are considered to understand religion 
so well as to think for themselves, and expound the law out of 
their own hearts, without being obliged to follow what they have 
read in books. Next are the Ko-yen-ga-lcty, who have retired 
from the world, and wear the yellow cloth, but are not all seeking 
to pass the examination, and become Oo-pe-zins. They have 
entered for an education, or a livelihood, or to gain a divorce, or 
for various objects; and many of such return annually to sec- 
ular life. Many of this class remain for life without rising in 
grade. 



206 RELIGION. 

Those who remain five years honorably, are called Tay ; i. e., 
simply priests; and those who remain twenty, are Malia Tay, 
great or aged priests. They might have become Ponghees at any 
stage of this period, if their talents and acquirements had 
amounted to the required standard. By courtesy all who wear 
tlie yellow cloth ai'e called Ponghees. 

The death of a Ponghee or president of a kyoung is regarded 
as a great event, and the funeral is conducted with pomp and 
ceremony. The body, being emboweled, and its juices pressed 
out, is filled with honey, and swathed in many folds of varnished 
cloth. The whole is coated with bees- wax ; that which covers 
the face and feet being so wrought as to resemble the deceased. 
These parts are then gilded. The body often lies in state for 
many months, on a platform highly ornamented with fringes, col- 
ored paper, pictures, &c. 

During my stay at Tavoy occurred the funeral of a distinguished 
Ponghee. Its rarity, and the great preparations which had been 
made for it, attracted almost the entire populace. The body had 
been lying in state, under an ornamental canopy, for several 
months, embalmed Burman fashion. The face and feet, where 
the wax preseiTcd the original shape, were visible, and complete- 
ly gilded. Five cars, on low wheels, had been prepared, to which 
were attached long ropes of ratan, and to some of them at each 
end. They were constructed chiefly of cane, and not only were 
in pretty good taste, but quite costly withal, in gold leaf| em- 
broidered muslin, &c. &c. 

When the set day arrived, the concourse assembled, filling not 
only all the zayats, but all the groves, dressed in their best clothes, 
and full of festivity. Not a beggar, or ill-dressed person, was to 
be seen. Almost every person, of both sexes, was dressed in silk ; 
and many, especially children, had oi-naments of gold or silver 
in their ears and round their ankles and wrists. Not an instance 
of drunkenness or quarrelling came under my eye, or, that I 
could learn, occurred on either day. The body in its decorated 
coffin was removed, amid an immense concourse, from its place 
in the kyoung to one of the cai's, with an excessive din of di-ums, 
gongs, cymbals, trumpets, and wailing of women. When it was 
properly adjusted in its new location, a number of men mounted 
the car at each end, and hundreds of people grasped the ropes, 
to draw it to the place of burning, half a mile distant. But it had 
not advanced many paces, before those behind drew it back. 
Then came a prodigious stiuggle. The thousands in front ex- 
erted all their strength to get it forward, and those behind with 



208 











isrRMA.H. 209 

equal energy held it back. Now it would go ten or twelve 
paces forward, then six or eight backward ; one party pretending 
their great zeal to perform the last honors for the priest, the 
other declaring they could not part with the dear remains ! The 
air was rent with the shouts of each party to encourage their 
side to exertion. The other cars of the procession were dragged 
back and forth in the same manner, but less vehemently. This 
frolic continued for a few hours, and the crowd dispersed, leaving 
the cai's on the way. For several days, the populace amused 
themselves in the same manner; but I attended no more, till in- 
formed by the governor that at tlnee o'clock that day the burn- 
ing would certainly take place. 

Repairing again to the spot, 1 found the advancing party had 
of course succeeded. The empty cars were in an open field, while 
that which bore the body was in the place of burning, enclosed 
by a light fence. The height was about thirty feet At an ele- 
vation of fifteen or sixteen feet, it contained a sort of sepulchral 
monument, like the square tombs in our church-yards, highly or- 
namented with Chinese paper, bits of various colored glass, ar- 
ranged like flowers, and various mythological figures; and filled 
with combustibles. On this was the body of the priest. A long 
spire, decorated to the utmost, and festooned with flowers, comp e- 
ted the structure. Soon after the appointed hour, a procession of 
priests approached, and took their seats on a platform within the 
enclosme, while in another direction came "the tree of life," 
borne on the shoulders of men, who reverently placed it near the 
priests. It was ingeniously and tastefully constructed of fruits, 
rice, boxes, cups, umbrellas, staffs, raiment, cooking utensils, and, 
in short, an assortment of ail the articles deemed useful and con- 
venient in Burman house-keeping. Women followed, bearing on 
their heads baskets of fruits and other articles. All these ofier- 
ings, I was told, were primarily for the use of the deceased. But 
as he only needed their spiritual essence, the gross and substan- 
tial substances remained for the use of the neighboring mon- 
astery. 

The priests, with a small audience of elderly persons, now 
mumbled over the appointed prayers, and, having performed some 
tedious ceremonies, retired. Immediately sky-rockets and other 
fireworks were let off", at a little distance. From the place of the 
})yrotechnics, long ropes extended to the funeral cars, to which 
were fastened horizontal rockets bearing various pasteboard fig- 
ures, as in the picture. Presently men with slow matches touched 
ofl'one of these ; but it wliizzed forward only a little way, and ex- 
9* 



210 RELIGION. 

pired. Another failed in the same manner, and shouts of derision 
rose from the crowd. The next ruslied forward, and smashed a 
portion of the car, which caUed forth strong applause. Anotlier 
and another dashed into the tottering fabric, wliile several men 
were seen throwing fagots and gunpowder into it, till, finally, a 
furious rocket entering the midst of the pile, the whole blazed 
u}), and the poor priest was exploded to heaven I Fancy fire- 
works concluded the ceremony, and the vast crowd dispersed. 
In the background of the picture are hucksters vending fruits, 
&c., and in the centre some musical buffoons. 

The circumstance that a great proportion of the males of the 
countiy are for a time members of the priesthood, while it serves 
to confirm and perpetuate the national faith, tends also to lower 
the influence of tiie clergy. Political influence they have none, 
and have never sought. They aie respected while they continue 
to wear the yellow cloth, but on relinquishing it retain no more 
consideration on that ground. Comi)aratively few remain per- 
manently in the jiriesthood, and these not often the most intel- 
lectual. Their literaiy pursuits (so called) have, of course, no 
tendency to expand or elevate, being a tissue of fables and 
extravagances; but, these books ascribing high merit to seclusion 
and contemplation, those who persist generally become calm, 
quiet, and austere. They maintain respect, not by lordly as- 
sumptions, but by a character for humility and piety. The 
higher priests are seldom intolerant, except when they consider 
their religion in danger, and are often men whom every one must 
respect. Foreigners generally receive at their hands kindness 
and hospitality. The inferior priests and novitiates are often the 
reverse of this in all things. Proud, empty, and presumptuous, 
they claim honors from foreigners, which they cannot receive, 
and display, in all their ways, bigotry and folly. 

Though no where required, or even authorized, by the Bedagat, 
there are in many places bands of priestesses or nuns, called Ma- 
thela-shen, or sometimes Ma-thao-daiv. They are fe^v in number,* 
and regarded with but little veneration. Like priests, they may 
return to common life at pleasure. Most of them are aged, 
though some are young. The latter often avow their object to 
be a better selection for a husband, through the conspicuity given 
them by the ofl^ice. Jn most cases of the old people, the profes- 
sion is regarded as little else than a pretext lor begging. Unlike 
priests in this respect, they are seen about the streets all day 

* hi Siam, still fewer. There arc but a dozen or two in all Bankok. 



BURMAH. 211 

long, often asking alms openly, and sometimes clamorously 
Tliey are known by dressing in white, which no other women 
do, and having their head shaved. They dwell, apart from soci- 
ety, near the kyoungs, mto which they have liee access, and 
where they perform various menial services. 

Both priests and nuns are under the control of a civil officer, 
called Kyoung-serai, or clerk of the monasteries, who derives his 
appointment from the Tha-thena-byng, but is considered a crown 
officer. He kee{)s a register of all kyoungs and their lands, in- 
quires into all disputes among the priests, or between them and 
the citizens, and in general watches over the outward demeanor 
of the clergy. ^ 

Though remarkably united in their religious opinions, Burmans 
are not entirely accordant. Sects have arisen, the chief of which 
is that of the Kola7is,who are said to be numerous and spreading. 
Kolan was a reformer, who lived about fifty years ago, and 
taught a semi-atheism, or the worship of Wisdom. Homage was 
to be paid to this, wherever found ; of course not a little was to 
be rendered to himself. Preachers and teachers of this sect, al- 
ways from among the laity, frequently rise, and gain many fol- 
lowers. Many of the nobles are said to be of this sentiment. 
Most of this sect are near Ava, and in the towns on the Irra- 
waddy. They are called Paramats, from a word which signifies 
" the good law." They discard the worship of images, and have 
neither priests nor sacred books. Kolan took the Be-dam-ma, (the 
first part of the Bedagat,) and, after revising it, adopted it as a 
good creed; but it is not much copied among his followers. 
Until lately, the Kolans have been greatly persecuted; but at 
l)resent little notice is taken of them. 

It has been obsened by travellers that this people is remarka- 
bly tolerant in religious matters. In a restricted sense, this is cer- 
tainly true. Foreigners of every description are allowed the full- 
est exercise of their religion. They may build places of worship 
of any kind, in any place, and have their public festivals and jno- 
cessions, without molestation. But no nation could be more 
intolerant to their own people. No Burman may join any of 
these religions under the severest penalties. Despotic as is the 
government, in nothing does it more thoroughly display that 
despotism, than in its measures for suppressing all religious in- 
novation, and supporting the established system. The whole 
population is divided into allotments often families, under a petty 
officer. Over every ten of these allotments is another officer, to 
whom the others repoit. These chiefs of a hundred families are 



212 RELIGION. 

under the supervision of a higher officer, who takes cognizance 
of all causes. On stated days, every chief of ten families is re- 
quired to bring forth his company to the appointed observances. 
He does not indeed notice mere remissness; but if any person be 
habitually absent, he must produce either a good reason or a 
bribe. Tlie whole population is thus held in chains, as iron-like 
as caste itself; and to become a Clu-istian openly is to hazard 
every thing, even life. 

In the British provinces, the national faith, being robbed of the 
support of the secular arm, seems to be cherished so much the 
mor» by national feeling. Expectancy that the religion of the 
new rulers may spread, seems to awake greater vigilance that 
it may not. Pagodas, kyoungs, and priests are well supported, 
and tlje clergy seem anxious to propitiate popular favor, to stand 
them instead of government patronage. It is therefore no easiej 
to distribute tracts, or obtain an audience in Maulmain, than iii 
Rangoon or Ava, though schools are more easily established 
Persecution is shown in every form, except official. Neigh- 
borly acts are often refused to Christians, and in some cases, were 
it not for the missionary, the convert could scarcely escape abso- 
lute want. 



REMARKS. 

No false religion, ancient or modern, is comparable to this. 
Its philosophy is, indeed, not exceeded in folly by any other ; but 
its doctrines and practical piety bear a strong resemblance to 
those of holy Scripture. There is scarcely a principle or precept 
in the Bedagat which is not found in the Bible. Did the people 
but act up to its principles of peace and love, oppression and in- 
jury would be known no more within their borders. Its deeds 
of merit are in all cases either really beneficial to mankind, or 
harmless. It has no mythology of obscene and ferocious deities; 
no sanguinai-y or impure observances ; no self-inflicted tortures ; 
no tyrannizing priesthood ; no confounding of right and wrong, 
by making certain iniquities laudable in worship. In its moral 
code, its descriptions of the purity and peace of the first ages, of 
the shortening of man's life because of his sins, &c., it seems to 
have followed genuine traditions. In almost every respect, it 
seems to be the best religion which man has ever iuveuted. 



BURMAH. 213 

At the same time, we must regard Boodliism with unmeasured 
reprobation, if we compare it, not with other false religions, but 
with truth. Its entire base is false. It is built, not on love to 
God, nor even love J;o man, but on personal merit It is a system 
of religion without a God. It is literally atheism. Instead of a 
Heavenly Father, forgiving sin, and filial service from a pure heart, 
as the eftect of love, it ])resents nothing to love, lor its Deity is 
dead ; nothing as the ultimate object of action but self; and 
nothing for man's highest and holiest ambition but annihilation. 

The system of merit corrupts and perverts to evil, the very pre- 
cepts whose prototypes are found in the Bible ; and causes an in- 
jurious effect on the heart, from the very duties which have a 
salutary effect on society. Thus, to say nothing of its doctrines 
of eternal transmigration, and of uncontrollable fate, we may see, 
in this single doctrine of merit, the utter destruction of all excel- 
lence. It leaves no place for holiness ; for every thing is done for 
the single purpose of obtaining advantage. 

Sympathy, tenderness, and all benevolence, would become ex- 
tinct under such a system, had not Jehovah planted their rudi- 
ments in the human constitution. If his neighbor's boat be upset, 
or his house on fire, why should the Boodhist assist ? He sup- 
poses such events to be the unavoidable consequences of demerit 
in a former existence ; and, if this suffering be averted, there must 
be another of equal magnitude. He even fears that by his inter- 
fering to prevent or assuage his neighbor's calamity, he is resist- 
ing established fate, and bringing evil on his own head ! 

The same doctrine of merit destroys gratitude, either to God 
or man. If he is well ofij itis because he desei'ves to be. If you 
do him a kindness, he cannot be persuaded that you have any 
other object or reason than to get merit; and feels that he com- 
pensates your generosity by furnishing the occasion. If the 
kindness be imcommon, he always suspects you of sinister designs. 
In asking a favor, at least of an equal, he does it peremptorily, 
and often haughtily, on the presumption that you will embrace 
the opportunity of getting merit ; and, when his request is grant- 
ed, retires without the slightest expression of gratitude. In fact, 
as has been already stated, there is no phrase in his language that 
corresponds with our "I thank you." 

The doctrine of fate is maintained with the obstinacy and de- 
votedness of a Turk. While it accounts to them for every event, 
it creates doggediiess under misfortune, and makes forethought 
useless. 



214 RELIGION. 

Boodhism allows evil to be balanced with good, by a scale 
which reduces sin to the shadow of a trifle. To sheeko to a pa- 
goda, or offer a flower to the idol, or feed the priests, or set a pot 
of cool water by the way-side, is supposed to cancel a multitude 
of sins. The building of a kyoung, or pagoda, will outweigh 
enormous crimes, and secure prosperity for ages to come. Vice 
is thus robbed of its terrors ; for it C£in be overbalanced by easy 
virtues. Listances are not rare of robbery, and even murder, 
being committed, to obtain the means of buying merit. All the 
terrors, therefore, with which hell is represented, do but serve to 
excite to the observance of frivolous rites. The making of an 
idol, an offering, or some such act, is substituted for repentance 
and reparation, for all inward excellence, and every outward 
charity. 

It ministers also to the most extravagant pride. The Boodhist 
presumes that incalculable merit, in previous incarnations, has 
been gained, to give him the honor of now wearing human na- 
tiu-e. He considers his condition far superior to that of the in- 
habitants of the other islands in this system, and his chance of 
exaltation to be of the most animating character. Conceit, there- 
fore, betrays itself in all his ways. The lowest man in society 
caiTies himself like the "twice born" brahmin of Hindustan. 

We need not multiply these remarks. It is enough to move 
our sympathy to know that this religion, however superior to any 
other invented by man, has no power to save. Though we have 
no stirring accounts to present of infants destroyed, or widows 
burned, or parents smothered in sacred mud, it is enough that 
they are perishing in their sins. It matters little whether a soul 
pass into eternity from beneath the wheels of Juggernaut, or 
from amid a cu-cle of weeping friends. The awful scene is be- 
yond ! May the favored ones of our happy land be induced to 
discharge their duty to these benighted millions. 



215 



PART III. 

TRAVELS IN HINDUSTAN, MALAYA, 
SIAM, AND CHINA. 



CHAPTER L 



Voyage to Calcutta — Saugor Island — Hoogly River — Lcinding — Houses 

— Servants — Streets — Weddings — Doorga Pooja — General Assembly's 
School — Benevolent Institution — Orphan Refuge — Central School — 
The Martiniere — Leper Hospital — Operations of Education Committee 

— Colleges — Progress of the English Language — Use of Roman Alpha- 
bet — Native Periodicals — Hindu and Mahometan Edifices — Ram Mohun 
Roy — Bromha Sobha— Population of Calcutta — Expenses of Living — 
Habits of Extravagance — Morals — Religion — Clergy — Places of Wor- 
ship — Missionary Operations — Christian Villages — Hinduism shaken — 
Serampore — Aspect — Population — Marshman — College — Grave- Yard 

— Operations of the Mission. 

A HOT and disagreeable passage of seventeen days from Ran- 
goon, in a small schooner, brought me to Calcutta, September 20, 
1836. The vessel, being loaded with timber and stick-lac, had 
plenty of scorpions and centipedes. Twice, on taking a clean 
shirt out of my trunk, 1 found a centipede snugly stowed in it. 
Having several times caught scorpions on my mattress at night, 
we undertook a general search, and on the under side of the 
cabin table, discovered a nest of twentj' or thirty. I had written 
here constantly for a week, with my knees pressed up hard 
against the edge, to keep me steady, and felt truly thankful to 
have been unmolested. Several of the females had white leathery 
bags attached to them, about the size of a grape, full of young 
ones, scarcely bigger than a pin's head. 

The constant increase of the sands at the mouth of the Hoogly, 
and the absence of any landmark, renders the approach always 



216 HINDUSTAN. 

a matter of some anxiety. The floating light is stationed out of 
sight of land, and the tails of the reefs, even there, are dangerous. 
When tlie shores are at lengtli discerned, their dead level and 
unbroken jungle, without any sign of population, and the great 
breadth of the river, gives the whole an aspect excessively dreary, 
well suiting to one's tirst emotions on beholding a land of idolatry. 

Saugor Island, which is first coasted, is lamed for being the 
spot where many infants and others are annually immolated. 
The Iloogly, called by the natives Ba-gir-a-tee, being considered 
the true mouth of the Ganges, and the junction of this sacred 
stream with the ocean being at Saugor, great sanctity is attached 
to the place. A few devotees are said to reside on the island, 
who contrive for a while to avoid the tigers, and are supported 
by the gifts of the boatmen, wlio chei'ish great faith in the secu- 
rity they are supposed to be able to confer. An annual festival is 
held here in January, which thousands of Hindus attend, some 
even from five or six hundred miles. 3Iissionaries often embrace 
this opportunity of preaching and distributing tracts. As a sam- 
ple of these efforts, the following extract from the journal of the 
late Mr. Chamberlain* will be interesting. 

"Gimga Saugor. — Arrived here this morning. Astonished 
beyond measure at the sight ! Boats crushed together, row upon 
row, for a vast extent in length, ninnberless in appearance, and 
people swarming everywhere! Multitudes! multitudes! Re- 
moved from the boats, they had pitched on a large sand-bank 
and in the jungle ; the oars of the boats being set up to support 
the tents, shops, &c. Words fail to give a true description of 
this scene. Here an immensely populous city has been raised 
in a very few days, full of streets, lanes, bazars, &c., many 
sorts of trade going on, with all the hurry and bustle of the most 
flourishing city. We soon left the boats, and went among the 
people. Here we saw the works of idolatry and blind supersti- 
tion. Crowds upon crowds of infatuated men, women, and 
children, high and low, young and old, rich and poor, bathing in 
the water, and worshipping Gunga, by bowing and making salams, 
and spreading their offerings of rice, flowers, &c. on the shore, 
for the goddess to take when the tides arrive. The mud and 
water of this place are esteemed very holy, and are taken 

* The life oflliis brother, by ihe Rev. Mr. Yates, of Calcutta, is every way 
worthy of perusal, ami ought to be reprinted in America. It is a large octavo, 
and might be somewhat curtailed ; but tlie abridgment, by the American Sab- 
bath School Unio.i, though suitable for their purpose, is loo meagre for general 
circulation. 



RIVER HOOGLY. 217 

hundreds of miles upon the slioulders of men. They sprinkle 
themselves witli the water, and daub themselves with the mud ; 
and this, they say, cleanses tliem from all sin : this is very great 
holiness. In former years, it was usual for many to give them- 
selves to the sharks and alligators, and thus to be destroyed. 
But the Company have now placed sepoys along the side, to 
prevent this. A European sergeant and tilty sepoys ai-e here 
now for that purpose." 

The veneration paid by Hindus to this river, is almost incredi- 
ble. Descending from a height of fifteen thousand feet above the 
level of the sea, and running a course of fifteen hundred miles, it 
receives, in every part, the most devoted homage. The touch of 
its water, nay, the very sight of it, say the Shasters, takes away 
all sin. Its very sediment is counted a remedy for all diseases. 
If it fails, they are not undeceived ; for they say the man's time 
has come, and tliere is no remedy for death. Drowning in it is 
an act of great merit. Thousands of sick persons endure long 
journeys, that they may die upon its banks. Its water is sworn 
upon, in courts of justice, as the Bible is, in ours. Fi'om 50,000 
to 200,000 persons assemble annually at certain places, of whom 
many are crushed to death in pressing to bathe at the propitious 
moment. Still more die on the road, of poverty and fatigue. No 
man, acquainted with tlie history of Hindustan, can sail upon 
these bright, unconscious waters, without being filled with sor- 
rowful contemplations. 

That the scenery here has been described in such glowing 
colors, can only be accounted for, by considering that the writers 
had been for months immured in a ship, and that, having previ- 
ously seen no countiy but tlieir own, every thing foreign became 
deeply interesting. The boats which come oi^\ of strange con- 
struction ; the " dandies," with their dark bronze skin, fine Roman 
features, perfect teeth, and scanty costume ; the Sircars, which 
board the ship with presents of fruit, dressed in graceful folds 
of snow-white muslin, — are indeed objects of interest, and form 
fruitful topics for journals and letters, to young travellers. As to 
the river itself j at least in the lower ijart of its course, none could 
be more dull and disagi-eeable. 

As the ship ascends the river, (generally a slow and difficult 
process,) objects of interest multiply. Fishermen's villages 
and scattered huts appear on each side, imbosomed in stately 
palms. Trees, of shapes nnloiown before, fields of sugar-cane, 
wide levels of paddy ground, and a universal gi-eenness, keep up 
an interest, till, on reaching Gloucester, European houses begin to 
10 



218 HINDUSTAN. 

be seen, and the ear once more catches tlie sounds of machinery 
and commerce. The cold emotions of wonder, and the pain of 
refleothig that one has arrived in the regions of degradation and 
idolati-y, now give place to a sense of exhilaration and homeness. 
On every side is evidence of the presence of those who stand 
with the highest among the civilized, the free, the scientific, and 
the religious nations of the earth. Hope portrays the future, 
benevolence stands ready to act, and discouragement is cheered 
by assurance of cooperation. 

At length, in passing a bend in the river, called "Garden 
Reach," a superb array of country-seats opens on the eastern 
bank. Luxury and refinement seem here to have made their 
home. Vei'dant and quiet lawns ap[)ear doubly attractive to a 
voyager, weary of ocean and sky. Buildings, coated with plaster, 
and combining Grecian chasteness with Oriental adaptation, lift 
their white columns amid noble trees and numerous tanks. 
Steamboats, budgerows, and dingeys, ply about upon the smooth 
water. The lofty chimneys of gas-works and factories rise in 
the distance, and every thing bespeaks your approach to a 
great city. 

We passed just at sunset. The multiform vehicles, for which 
Calcutta is famous, stood before the doors, or rolled away through 
the trees, followed by turbaned sei-vants in flowing muslin. 
Ladies and children, with nurses and bearers, lounged along the 
smooth paths, and it was difficult to realize that this beautiful 
climate should prove so insidious. The general obsei-vaiion, 
however, is, that death owes more victims to high living, indo- 
lence, exjjosure at niglit, fatigue in shooting excursions, &c., than 
to the positive eflTects of climate. Lideed, some affirm India to 
be as salubrious as England, and the aspect of some who have 
been long in the countiy would seem to countenance tlie as- 
sertion. 

A farther advance brings an indistinct view of the fort and 
the fine buildings of the Chouringy suburb, all presented in one 
great curve, which is soon relinquished for a more minute and 
inquisitive contemplation of " the course." This is a broad road 
on the bank of the river, passing round the esplanade and foil, 
to which the English residents drive every evening at sunset. 
As evei7 clerk in the city keeps his buggy or palankeen carriage, 
the crowd of vehicles rivals that at Hyde Park. The sight is 
even more imposing. Most of the higher classes use stately 
landaus, or open barouches ; and the ladies are without bonnets. 
Crowds of gentlemen are on horseback. Indian side-runners 



KIVEK IIOOULV. 219 

give a princely air to the slow procession. The shipping of 
every nation, the clear horizon, the noble fort, the city tront, tlie 
pleasure-boats, the beautiful ghauts, &c., make it a scene which 
always pleases ; and the citizens repau- thither from day to day, 
and from year to year, without weariness or satiety. 

On passing Garden Reach, the river becomes covered with 
boats, of eveiy conceivable form, from which a dozen different 
languages meet the ear. A multitude of vessels lie at anchor ; 
steam-engines pour from their towering chimneys volumes of 
smoke ; beautiful ghauts slope into the water ; palankeens, ton- 
jons, buggies, coaches, phaetons, gares, caranches, and hackaries, 
line the shore, and before us spreads out the great city, contain- 
ing, with its suburbs, almost a million of souls. 

All who die in or beside the river, and even those whose dead 
bodies are committed to it, being deemed certain of future bliss, 
multitudes are brought to die upon the banks, or are laid at 
low water on the mud, whence the return of the tide washes 
them away. These and the half-consumed i-elics from the funeral 
pile, in eveiy variety of revolting aspect, are continually float- 
ing by. Government boats ply above the city to sink these 
bodies ; but many escape, and we daily saw them float by, 
while vultures stood upon them, contending for the horrid ban- 
quet. 

There being no wharves or docks, you are rowed to a ghaut 
in a dingey, and landed amid Hindus performing theu* ablutions 
and reciting their prayers. No sooner does your boat touch the 
shore, than a host of bearers contend for you with loud jabber, 
and those whom you i-esist least, actually bear you off" in their 
arms through the mud, and you find yourself at once in one of 
those strange conveyances, a palankeen. Away you hie, flat on 
your back, at the rate of nearly five miles an hour, a chatty boy 
bearing aloft a huge palm-leaf umbrella to keep off the sun, 
■whom no assurances that you do not want him will drive away, 
but who expects only a pice or two for his pains. The bearers 
grunt at every step, like southern negroes when cleaving wood ; 
and though they do it as a sort of chorus, it keeps your unaccus- 
tomed feelings discomposed. 

Arrived at the house, you find it secluded within a high brick 
wall, and guarded at the gate by a durwan, or porter, who lives 
there in a lodge, less to prevent ingress, than to see that servants 
and others carry nothing away improperly. The door is shel- 
tered by a porch, called here a veranda, so constructed as to 
shelter carriages — a precaution equally necessary for the rains 



220 HINDUSTAN 

and the sun. The best houses are of two stories, the upper 
being occupied by the family, and the lower used for dining and 
store rooms. On every side are contrivances to mitigate heat and 
exclude dust. Venetian blinds enclose the veranda, extending 
from pillar to pillar, as low as a man's head. The remaining 
space is fiirnished with mats, (tatties,) whicli reach to the floor, 
when the sun is on that side, but at other times are rolled up. 
When these are kept wet, they diffuse a most agreeable coolness. 

The moment you sit down, whether in a mansion, office, or 
shop, a sei-vant commences pulling the punka, under which you 
may happen to be. The floor is of brick and mortar, covered 
with mats, the walls of the pm-est white, and the ceilings of great 
height Both sexes, and all orders, dress in white cottons. The 
rooms are kept dark, and in the hottest part of the day shut up 
with glass. In short, every thing betrays a struggle to keep cool. 

Another great contest seems to be against ants. You perceive 
various articles of furniture placed upon little dishes of water 
or quick-lime, without which precaution every thing is overrun. 
White ants are most formidable ; for from those it is impos- 
sible wholly to guard. They attack ever}' thing, even the beams 
in the houses. A chest of clothes, lying on the floor a day or 
two only, may be found entirely ruined. A mere pinhole appears 
in your precious quaito — you open it, and behold a mass of dust 
and fragments ! 

The number of servants, and their sno^vy drapery, huge tur- 
bans, stubby mustachios, bare feet, and cringing servility, form 
another feature in the novel scene. Partly from the influence 
of caste, but more from indolent habits, low pay, and the indul- 
gence of former masters, when fortunes were easily made, they 
are appointed to sendees so minutely divided as to render a great 
number neccssai-y. The following list, given me by a lady long 
in India, not only illustrates this peculiarity, but shows how large 
opportunities private Christians possess of doing good to natives 
even beneath their own roof A genteel family, not wealthy, 
must have the following domestics: — 

Kimsiima — a head servant, butler, or steward ; Kit-mvi-gar 
— table-sen'ant ; Musulche. — cleans knives, washes plates, and 
carries the lantern ; Bobagee — cook ; Surdar — head bearer, 
cleans furniture, &c. ; Bearer — cleans shoes, and does com- 
mon errands, (if a palankeen is kept, there must be at least 
eight of these,) pulls punka; Abdar — cools and takes care of 
water; Meeta — man sweeper; Metrdne — female sweeper; 
Ayah — lady's maid, or nurse ; Dwwun — gate-keeper ; Molley — 



CALCUTTA. 221 

gardener ; Dirgey — tailor ; Dobey — washerman ; Garee-iocdla 
— coachman ; Syce — groom, one to every horse, who always 
runs with him; Grass-cutter — cuts and brings grass daily, one 
to each horse ; Guy walla — keeper of the cow or goats ; Hur- 
7m7u — errand boy or messenger ; Sircar — accountant, or secre- 
tary; Chuprasse — carries letters, and does the more trusty er- 
rands; Cfwkedar — watchman; Cooky — carries burdens, brings 
home marketing, &c. ; Bheestie — to bring water. Of gardeners, 
maids, table-servants, nurses, &c., there of course must often be 
several. It is generally necessaiy to have part of these Mussul- 
mans, and part Hindus ; for one will not bring some dishes to 
the table, and the other will not touch a candlestick, &c. If a 
child makes a htter on the floor, the ayah will not clean it, but 
calls the metrane. 

A walk into the native town, produces novel sights on every 
side. The houses, for the most part, are mere hovels, with mud 
floors and mud walls, scarcely high enough to stand up in, and 
covered with thatch. The streets are narrow, crooked, and 
dirty; and on every neglected wall, cow dung, mixed with chaff", 
and kneaded into thin cakes, is stuck up to dry for fuel. The 
shops are often but six or eight feet square, and seldom twice 
this size, wholly open in front, without any counter, but the mat 
on the floor, part of which is occupied by the vender, sitting 
cross-legged, and the rest serves to exliibit his goods. Mechanics 
have a similar arrangement. 

Barbers sit in the open street on a mat, and the patient, squat- 
tmg on his hams, has not only his beard, but pai't of his head, 
shaved, leaving the hau* to grow only on his crown. In the tanks 
and ponds are dobies slapping their clothes with all their might 
upon a bench or a stone. Little braminy bulls, with their 
liumped shoulders, walk among the crowd, thrusting their noses 
into the baskets of rice, gram, or peas, with little resistance, 
except they stay to repeat the mouthflil.* Bullocks, loaded with 
panniers, pass slowly by. Palankeens come bustling along, the 
bearers shouting at the people to clear the way. Pedlers and - 
hucksters utter their ceaseless cries. Religious mendicants, with 
long hair matted with cow dung, and with faces and arms 

* These are individuals turned loose when young, as offerings to an idol, 
which are thenceforth regarded as sacred. Though no one looks after them, 
their privileged mode of life keeps them in good order; and, mixing so much 
among crowds, from which they meet no ill treatment, makes them perfectly 
gentle. 



222 HINDDSTAN. 

smeared with Ganges mud, walk about almost naked, with an 
air of the utmost impudence and pride, demanding rather than 
begging gifts. Often thej' carry a thick triangular plate of brass, 
and, striking it at intenals with a heavy stick, send the shrill 
announcement of their approach far and near. Now and then 
comes rushing along the buggy of some English merchant, whose 
syce, running before, drives the pedestrians out of the way ; or 
some villanous-looking caranche drags by, shut up close with 
red cloth, containing native ladies, who cbntrive thus to " take 
the air." 

No Englishmen are seen on foot, except the very poorest, as 
it is deemed ungenteel ; nor native women, except of the lowest 
castes. Costumes and complexions, of every variety, move about 
without attracting attention -^ Hindus, Mussulmans, Arme- 
nians, Greeks, Persians, Parsees, Ai'abs, Jews, Burrnans, Chinese, 
&c. &c. ; bheesties, with leatlier water-sacks, slung drippmg on 




their backs, carry their precious bm-den to the rich man's yard, 
or hawk it along the street, announcing their approach by 
drumming on their brass measure. Snake-charmers, jugglers, 
and blind musicians, gather their little crowds. Processions 
are almost always abroad in honor of some idol, or in fulfil- 
ment of some promise ; making all possible clamor with voices, 
drums, cymbals, and trumpets. Women carry their children 
astride on their hips. Wretched carriages, drawn by more 
wi-etched ponies, jingle along, bearing those who have long 
walks and moderate means. Women crowd about the wells, 
cariying water on then- hips in brass jars. Children run about 



CALCUTTA. 



223 



stai'k naked, or with a thin plate of silver or brass, not larger 
than a tea-cup, hung in front by a cord round the hips. Mud- 
holes, neglected tanks, decaying car- 
casses, and stagnant ditches, unite with 
fumes of garlic, rancid oil, and human 
filth, to load the air with villanous 
smells. The tout ensemble of sights, 
sounds, and smells, is so utterly unlike 
any thing in any other part of the world, 
that weeks elapse before the sensation 
of strangeness wears away. 

My residence with Mr. Pearce on 
the circular road, which is a principal 
thoroughfare, afforded continual oppor- 
tunity of observing native character and 
habits. A spectacle of frequent recur- 
rence was the wedding procession of 
young children, affianced by their rela- 
tions. Music and many toi-ches dignify 
the procession. The girl is often carried in a palankeen, and the 
bridegroom on horseback, held by a friend. Sometimes the little 
things are borne in a highly-ornamented litter, as in the engra- 




Woman carrying Waler, 




Part of a Wedding Procesion. 



ving. It is always alFecting to think that if the poor little boy 
die, his betrothed is condemned to pei-petual widowhood. Many 
of these, as might be expected, become abandoned characters. 
One ia constantly struck with the excessive cruelty displayed 



224 



HINDUSTAN. 



toward oxen and liorses by tlie natives ; so strongly contrasting 
witJi the tenderness of Burnian drivers. The cattle are small, 
lean, and scarred all over with the brands and fanciful figures of 
their owners. Poor in flesh, and weak, they are urged with a 
large stick, and by twisting the tail, in the most violent manner. 
The heavy blows were continually sounding in my ears, and, 
with the creaking of the wheels, Avhich are never greased, keep 
up an odious din. TJie horses of their miserable caranches 
fare no better — the driver scarcely ever suffering his whij) to 
repose. 

I saw many funerals, but none in which any solemnitj' or pomp 
prevailed. The body, without a coffin, was carried on its own 
paltiy bedstead by four men, covered merely with a sheet ; a few 
followers kejjt up a wailing recitative, and beat upon small native 
drums. The body was thus conveyed to the place of burning, 
or throw7i into the Ganges. 

Close to my residence was one of those numerous tanks re- 
sorted to in this city, not only for drinking-water, but ablutions 
of all sorts. Eveiy hour in the day some one was there bathing. 
Those who came for water, would generally walk in, and let- 
ting their jai- float awhile, bathe, and perhai)s wash their cloth ; 
then filling their vessel, bear it away with dripping clothes. 
Some dobeys, or washermen, resorted thither, whose severe 
process fully accounted for the fringes constantly made on the 
edges of my clothes. They depend on labor and the sun, rather 
than on soap and fire. Standing knee deep in the water, and gath- 




ering the end of a garment in tlieir hand, they whirl it over their 
head, and bring it down with great force upon a stone or inclined 
plank, occasionally shaking it in the water. They spread out the 
articles on the hot sand, and a powerful sun enables them to pre- 
sent clothes of snowy whiteness. 



CALCUTTA. 225 

My stay in the city included several annual festivals, of which 
one was tlie Door-ga Poo-ja, which commenced on the fifteenth 
of October, and lasted till the nineteenth. The whole population 
unites in tliis celebration, and tlie government offices are closed. 
It is in honor of Bhajfabatee, wife of Seeb, who is called Doorga, 
from her having destroyed a dreadful giant of that name, who 
liad subdued most of the gods. 

The first day is spent in waking up Doorga, and other gods, 
who are supposed to have slept since the festival of Shayan 
Ekadashee. The second day, vows are made, and oflTerings of 
water, flowers, sweetmeats, &c., are presented. The third day 
is occujjied with ceremonies to bring the soul of Doorga 
into the image. To effect this, the priest repeats prayers, ofiers 
incantations, and touches the eyes, cheeks, nose, breast, &c., of 
the image with his finger. The image now becomes an object 
of worship, and crowds offer it dmne honors, presenting at the 
same time large quantities of fruits, clotliing, and food ; which, 
of course, are perquisites to the IJraiunins. The foiu'th day 
streams with the blood of animal sacrifices. The worshippers 
dance before the idol, smeared with gore ; drums beat ; and 
shouts rend the air. The heads only of the victims are offered, 
the worshippers eating the carcasses, and rioting in strong drink. 
Such Hindus as worship Vishnu, not being permitted to shed 
blood, offer pumpkins, melons, sugar-cane, &c., which are cut in 
two with the sacrificial knife, that the juice may flow forth. 
All these days, the image is kept in the house, and the services 
performed in interior coui-ts, so that the streets show little con- 
tusion or stir. The evenings aj-e occupied with songs and 
dancing, often of an indecent character. 

The last and great day brings the goddess abroad, carried in 
triumph upon the shoulders of men, to be thrown into the river. 
Crowds follow with shouts ; bands of music accompany each 
group; and towards sundown the streets are literally full of these 
processions. J rode to the margin of the river, at that time, to 
witness this part of the festival ; and during the stay of a single 
hour, scores of images were thrown in at that place. Above 
and below, the same scenes were enacted. 

These exhibitions not only present Doorga, but several other 
images, often as large as life, very handsomely moulded, of wax, 
clay, or paper. Under an ornamented canopy stands the god- 
dess, stretching out her ten arms, each of which has an occupa- 
tion. One transfixes with a spear the giant Mahisha; others 
hold implements of war, flowers, sceptres, &c. Beneath her 



226 HIJNBUSTAN. *• 

feet is a lion, tearing the said giant; and on each side are her 
sons. Kartik and Ganesh. TJie whole is borne on a frame or 
bier, requiring twenty or thirty bearers. Tlie group is gene- 
rally got U}5 with much skill, and no little ornament, some of 
which is really tasteful and costly. Vast sums are expended at 
this festival by all ranks, amounting, in some cases, even to 
twenty or thirty thousand rupees ! Almost every respectable 
family makes one of these objects, and lavishes on it consideraWe 
expense. The offerings, the music, the feast, and still more, the 
gifts to Brahmins, make up a hea^'y cost. I could not help 
obsei-ving, that the men employed to cast the fabric into the 
river, no sooner got a little way from the shore, in the boat, than 
they began to rifle the goddess of her muslins, plumes, and gilded 
ornaments, so that often nothing but a mere wreck was thrown 
overboard. 

Calcutta being the focus of religious intelligence for all the 
East, and the seat of numerous missionary operations, I was not 
son-y that no vessel offered for my next port of destination, for 
two months. It gave me an opportunity of visiting the charita- 
ble, literary, and religious institutions; attending the various 
churches, and several anniversaries; mingling with ministerial 
society, committees, and conferences ; and gathering no small 
amount of information from the best sources. 1 shall, however, 
only note here such as will interest the general reader. 

One of my first visits was to the school of the Scottish General 
Assembly, founded by Rev. Mr. Duff, and now under the care of 
Rev. Messrs. Mackay and Ewart. It occupies a large brick build- 
ing, enclosing a quadrangular court, formerly the residence of a 
wealthy Baboo, and standing in the midst of the native town.* 
It has existed about six years, and now numbers about six hun- 
dred and thirty-four pupils ; boys, mostly under fourteen years. 
They are all Bengalees and Hindus, generally of the higher 
castes, and many of them Brahmins. Many have been in the 
school from the commencement. They purchase their own 
school-books, and receive no support from the school ; but the 
tuition is gratis. There are five ushers, besides twelve or fifteen 
of the more advanced scholars, who act as assistant teachers. 
The instruction is wholly in the English language. 1 examined 
several classes in ancient and modern history, mathematics, 
astronomy, and Christianity ; and have never met classes show- 

• A new building', capable of accommodating 1000 pupils, has since been 
erected on Coruwallis Square. 



CALCOTTA. 227 

iiig a more thorough knowledge of the books they liad studied. 
Nearly all of the two upper classes are convinced of the truth of 
the gosjiel, and went over the leading evidences in a manner 
that, I am sure, few professors of religion in our country can do. 
Some six or seven pupils have given evidence of a work of grace 
in their heart ; a ihw of winch have made a profession of 
religion. 

A few weeks after, T had the pleasure of attending the public 
annual examination of this school, held in the town hall, a truly 
noble building. I never witnessed a better examination. The 
pupils were often led away from the direct subject, by gentlemen 
present, and in evei-y case showed a good insight into the subject 
they had studied. Several excellent essays were read in Eng- 
lish, wholly composed by the scholars, two of which were of 
special cleverness ; one in favor of caste, the other against it. 
The former received some tokens of applause fi-om the Eui'o- 
peans, for the talent it displayed ; but not a native clapped. On 
the conclusion of that against caste, the whole mass of pupils 
burst out into thundering applause ! This incident is worthy of 
note, as showing the waning influence of Brahma. 

The Benevolent Institution, instituted thirty years ago by the 
Serampore Missionaries, has continued without interruption ; 
imparting the English language and English literature, on the 
Lancasterian plan, to an average of three hundred pupils. Sev- 
eral times that number have left the school with more or less 
education, many of whom ai'e now honorably employed as 
teachers, writers, and clerks. There are now a himdred and 
eighty in the boys', and thirty in the girls' department. The es- 
tablishment of other schools has diminished its number. It 
was intended entirely for the benefit of the children of nominal 
Christians, chiefly Catholic,'who were growing up in ignorance 
and vice ; but some pagan youth are now admitted. The Rev. 
IMr. Penny has devoted himself to this sei-vice for many years ; 
and recently his salai-y has been paid by government. The boys 
live with their parents, and receive no support from the school. 

The Boarding and Day Schools at Chitpore, one of the north- 
ern suburbs of Calcutta, were established by the Baptist mission- 
aries, in 1829. They are under the care of Rev. J. D. Ellis, and 
contained boys and girls, till the latter were removed to Seebpore. 
The boarding school is for the children of native Christians, 
and contains forty-five interesting boys, none under seven years. 
They are entirely supjjorted, at an average expense of about four 
rupees a month ; including food, clothes, books, salaries of as- 



228 HINDUSTAN. 

gistant teachers, building, medicine, &c. Nine of the boys have 
become jjious, and been received into the church, and thi'ce 
otliers are to be baptized soon. 

The day school, on sepaiate premises, is for heathen boys, 
and contains three hundred pupils, from eight to eighteen years 
of age. They study the English language, and all the branches 
of a good high school. They provide their own books and 
stationeiy, so that the salaries of the native ushers, amounting in 
the aggregate to seventy-five rupees a month, and the rent of the 
buildings, constitute all the expense. This school is decidedly 
the best I found in Calcutta, excepting, perhaps, that of the Gen- 
eral Assembly just mentioned, to which it is not inferior. The 
arrangement of the school-house and grounds, the general gov- 
ernment, the deportment of the pupils, and the degrees of 
proficiency, are most satisfactory. None have become open 
Christians; but most of the senior boys theoretically reject idola- 
try, and declare oms to be the only true faith. I was astonished 
at the readiness with which they went over the evidences of 
Christianity, from miracles, prophecy, histoi-y, internal structure, 
&c. 1 started many of the jjlausible objections of heathen and 
infidels, and found they had truly mastered both the text-books 
and the subject. 

Bishop's College, founded by Bp. Middleton, stands a few miles 
below Calcutta, on the River Hoogly. The college edifice is of 
great size, and substantially built, in the Gothic style, and the 
professors' houses, pleasure-grounds, &c., are every way suitable. 
A distinguished civilian ])olitely took me there in his carriage, 
and the president kindly showed us every part. The fine libraiy, 
beautiful chapel, and admirable arrangements, with the high 
character of the instructors, seem to invite students ; but there 
have as yet been never more than ten or twelve at a time. This 
is possibly owing in part to the exclusively Episcopal character 
of the college. The salaiy of the principal is one thousand 
pounds per annum, and of the second teacher, seven Jiundred 
pounds. 

The Indian Female Orphan Refuge, and Central School, were 
founded by Mrs, Wilson, (then IMiss Cook,) about twelve years 
ago. The two departments under the above names occupied 
the same building, till the present season, when the Refuge was 
removed to new and more suitable premises, six miles north of 
the city. The increased and improved accommodations will 
enable this excellent lady to enhance the value of her admirable 
charity. Here native orphans, and other destitute or abandoned 



CALCUTTA 229 

children, are received at any age, nowever young, and remain 
till marriageable, supported in all respects. A considerable 
number of them were redeemed from actual starvation, during 
the dreadful desolation of a hurricane on the Hoogly River, 
a few years since. All are taught to read and speak English, 
l)eside the elementary studies and needle-work. They are 
found to be acute, and generally learn to read and understand 
the New Testament in one year. Some six or eight are ftlussul- 
man children ; the rest are Hindus, who, of course, lose whatever 
caste they may have ; though this now, in Calcutta, is productive 
of comparatively little inconvenience to the poor. The present 
number in the Reluge is one hundred and eigiit, and the whole 
cost per annum, for each child, is found to be about twenty-five 
rupees. Mrs. Wilson (now a widow) resides in the institution, 
and devotes herself most steadfastly to the arduous work. Pos- 
sessing the unlimited confidence of the philanthropists of Cal- 
cutta, she has been able to meet the expenses of her new and 
extensive buildings, and is not likely to want funds for sustaining 
the school. 

The Central School has, on an average, two hundred and fifty 
girls, who attend in the day-time only, and receive no support. 
The fii'st impressions, on entering the vast room where they are 
taught, are very touching. Seated on mats, in groups of eight 
or ten, around the sides of the room, are thirty classes ; each 
with a native teacher in the midst. The thin cotton shawls, 
covering not only the whole person, but the head, are lent them 
evei*y morning to wear in school, and kept beautifully white. In 
their noses or ears hang rings of large diameter ; and many of 
them had the little spot at the root of the nose,* indicative of 
the god they serve, tattooed. Some had on the arms or ankles 
numerous bracelets or bang'es, of ivory, wood, or silver ; and 
many wore rings on the toes ; all according to the hnmemorial 
usage of Bengalee women. 

All were intent on their lessons ; and when it was considered 
that those lessons comprised the blessed truths of revelation, the 
scene could not but affect a Christian's heart with gratitude and 
hope. Two pious ladies devote themselves to the management 

* This custom of marking the forehead illustrates, very forcibly, the ex- 
pression of Deut. xxxii. 5, " Tliei?- spot is not the spot of his children." Some 
have one spot Just above the root of the nose — yellow, brown, or red, as the 
sect may be. Some have two spots, some a perpendicular line, others two or 
three lines ; some a horizontal line, or two, or three. Thus every one carries 
on his front a profession of his faith, and openly announces to all men his creed. 



230 HINDUSTAN. 

of this school, and attend all day. A native preaclier conducts 
daily worship, and j)reaches once a week. Tlie native women, 
being paid one pice per day for each scholar, are tluis induced, 
though heathen, to exert themselves to keep their classes full. 

The two institutions last named show what may be done by 
ladies. What abundant opportunities are presented, in several 
parts of the world, for them to come forth, and be co-workers in 
the missionary enterprise ! 

The Martiniere, founded by a munificent legacy of General 
Martin, was opened Blarch, 1835, and has already eighty pupils, 
of which fifty are wlioljy supported. It is intended solely for the 
children of Europeans, and has a principal and two professors. 
The building, which cost 200,000 rupees, is truly noble, and 
stands on the southern edge of the city, amid extensive grounds. 
Many more pupils can be accommodated ; and there is no doubt 
the number will soon be full. The children are not required to be 
orphans, or very poor, but are admitted from that class of society 
which, though respectable, find it impossible to give their childi'en 
a good education, and are glad to be relieved from their support. 

The Leper Hospital, founded by the exertions of Dr. Carey, is 
located on the road to Barrackpore, a little north of the city. 
Listead of a large building, it is an enclosed village, with neat 
grounds and out-houses. Any lepers may resort there, and re- 
ceive maintenance in full, with such medical treatment as the 
case may encourage. It generally contains several hundred ; but 
many prefer to subsist by begging in the streets. 

Beside these institutions, there are several others, such as 
orphan asylums, a floating chapel, &c., of a cliaracter similar to 
those of our own countiy, and which therefore do not need any 
description. 

In 1813, parliament required the East India Company to devote 
£10,000, or a lac of rupees, annually, for the education and im- 
j)rovement of the natives ; but nothing was done lor fifteen or 
sixteen years. The funds, with other ajjprojjriations, which had 
accumulated to nearly 300,000 rupees per annum, were then 
placed under the control of a " Committee of Education," who 
proceeded to work in earnest. The Hindu, Mahometan, and 
Sunscrit Colleges in Calcutta, were taken under the patronage 
of the committee, and schools and colleges at Benares, Delhi, 
Iloogly, Agra, Moorshedabad, Bangulpore, Saugor, Maulmain, 
and Allahabad, were soon founded. In 1835, a new impulse and 
direction were given to these operations, and there were estab- 
lished the Medical College of Calcutta, and schools at Poorce. 



CALCUTTA. 231 

Gowhatte, Dacca, Patna, (Jliazepore, and Merut, The following 
are now in course of being established — Rjijslialii, Jubbulpore, 
llosliungabad, Furruckabad, Bareilly, and Ajniere, The whole 
number of pupils at, present is three thousand three hun(h-ed and 
ninety-eight,* of whom one thousand eight hundred and ninety- 
one study English, two hundred and eighteen Arabic, four hundred 
and seventy-three Sunscrit, and three hundred and seventy-six 
I'ersian. Most of tlie rest are confined to the local vernacular. 
Of the students, one thousand eight hundred and eighty-one are 
Hindus, five hundred and ninety-six Mussulmans, seventy-seven 
Christians, and the rest are Burmans, Chinese, &c. A sinnmaiy 
view of those in Calcutta will give a general idea of the whole. ' 

The Hindu College, (called by Hindus the Vidyalaya,) estab- 
lished in 1810, by wealthy natives, contains four hundred and 
fifty pupils. About sixty are on scholarships ; the rest pay from 
five to seven rupees per month for tuition. It has two depart- 
ments ; one for imparting education in English, and English 
literature, open to all classes and castes ; the other for the culti- 
vation of Sunscrit literature, and open only to persons of the 
Jirahminical order, who are not admitted under twelve years of 
age. In the English department, instruction is given in I'eading, 
writing, arithmetic, composition, mathematics, history, natural 
philosophy, geography, &c. The institute has a valuable library 
in English, which sei-ves to give efficacy and expansion to 
the system of instruction. The fact that natives are willing to 
pay so much for tuition, and support themselves, shows the pre- 
vailing anxiety to acquire our language. Scholars are received 
into the English de[)artment as young as six years. 

The Sunscrit College has about one hundred and thirty-five 
pupils ; part of whom study English, with the other branches. 
They are instructed in Hindu literature, law, and tlieology. The 
fewness of scholars seeking instruction in this worthless stuff is 
a good sign. Even of these, fifty-seven are paid monthly sti- 
pends of from six to eight rupees. The rest are not charged for 
tuition. The term of attendance is twelve years ; viz. three for 
grammar, two for general literature, one for rhetoric, one for 
logic, one for theology, one for mathematics, and three for law. 
All the forms and distinctions of caste are observed at this 
schooL 

The Mahometan College (generally called the Madressa) 

* The number of pupils has now (January, 1839) increased to nearly 7000, 
but tliose studying Arabic, Sunscrit, and Persian, are fewer than in 1835. 



232 HINDUSTAN. 

is for the instruction of that class of natives in their o\m 
literature and faith. Formerly, the students were allowed sti- 
pends of seven or eight ru]iees per month ; but, as those who 
hold these fall off, they are not renewed to others, so that the 
luunher is annually diminishing. It has two dejiartments. Orien- 
tal and English ; the former containing ninety-one students, and 
the latter one hundred and thirty. The studies are reading, 
writing, spelling, grammar, arithmetic, geography, history, natural 
j)hilosophy, and the Mahometan laws and religion. 

The Hoogly (or Mahomet Muhsin's) College, situated about 
twenty-five miles above Calcutta, has grown out of the Hoogly 
School, which flourished several years, teaching chiefly the Eng- 
lish language, to about one hundred and thirty pupils. Large en- 
dowments from the aiiove-named IJaboo have lately become 
available, and yield an annual revenue of no less than a lac of 
rupees. It was re-opened on an enlarged system in August, 
1836, and already enrols more than fifteen hundred students, 
who have entered the western department ; that is, to pros- 
ecute English and English literature exclusively; and three 
hundred who have entered the Oriental department. About one 
hundred of the latter study English in connection with Eastern 
languages, and two hmidred study Arabic and Persian exclu- 
sively. 

The Medical College was instituted by a general order of the 
supreme government, in which it was directed that the Native 
Medical Institution, then existing under Dr. Tytler, and the med- 
ical clasFCS at the Sunscrit and Mahometan Colleges, should be 
abolished, and a new institution formed. Medical science is here 
on the most enlightened prijici])les, and in the English language. 
Instruction conunenced June, 1835, with forty-nine students, se- 
lected from jiumerous applicants. All were required to be able 
to speak, read, and write English with ease and accuracy. The 
institution is a great favorite with Britons in Calcutta, and 
])roniises very important benefits to Bengal, beside raising up 
suitable doctors for the native regiments. None but native stu- 
dents are admitted; but these may be of any creed or caste; ami 
for fif\y of them, a comj)etent supj)ort is provided. They ai'e re- 
ceived between the ages of fourteen and twenty, and such as are 
allowed stipends are required to remain five or six years. 

For each of these institutions a good English library and phil- 
osophical apparatus have been ordered from London, toward 
wliich object a wealthy Baboo has given twenty thousand rupees. 
Persons of all ages, religious opinions, and castes, are admitted aa 



CALCUTTA. 233 

pupils in all the government institutions except the Hindu, Ma- 
hometan, and Sanscrit Colleges at Calcutta, and the Sunscrit 
College at Benares. The effect of these last-named institutions 
is regarded by many as wholly tending to support the national 
systems of religion and literature, and, therefore, so far as the 
eternjil well-bemg of the pupils is concerned, decidedly in- 
jurious. 

The circumstances of the country make these colleges, not 
what a cursory reader would infer from the name, but schools ; 
or, at the best, academies. Education has not long enough pre- 
vailed to have produced a race of young men prepared by ele- 
mentary studies to pursue the higher branches. The pupils of 
llicse " colleges" are taught to read, write, and cipher, as well as 
grammar, geography, logic, mathematics, &c., from the rudi- 
ments upward. 

Until 1835, the policy of the committee was to encourage the 
study of Persian, Sunscrit, and Ai'abic literature, as the best 
means of elevating the general intelligence of the natives. 
Hence the endowment of schools and colleges, expressly for 
these studies, and paying the students liberal monthly stipends. 
A great number were thus induced to study these dead languages, 
who felt no interest in them, and made no valuable proficiency. 
While modern science was enlightening all Europe, these stu- 
dents were learning Ptolemy's astronomy, Aristotle's philosophy 
and Galen's medical institutes, and reading the shockingly las- 
civious stories of the Mricchakata, and the Nol Damayanti. 
Bisho]) Heber examined some of these students at Benares, and 
says,* "The asti-onomical lectiu-er produced a terrestrial globe, di- 
vided according to their system, and elevated to the meridian of 
IJenares. Blount Meru he identified with the north pole, and 
under the south pole lie supposed the tortoise 'Cliukwa' to 
stand ; on which the earth rests. He then showed me how the 
sun went round the earth once in every day, and how, by a dif- 
ferent motion, he visited the signs of the zodiac." As Hindu lit- 
erature has been highly extolled by some, I will add a specimen 
from Ram Mohun Roy's account of it. f " ' Khad signifies to eat ; 
Khnduti, he, she, or it eats : query, does Khaduti, as a whole, con- 
vey the meaning he, she, or it eats, or are separate parts of this 
meaning conveyed by distinctions of the word?' As if, in the 
English language, it were asked. How much meaning is there in 



* Travels in India. 

t Letter to Lord Amherst, Governor-general of India. 
10* 



234 HINDUSTAN. 

the eat, and liow much in thes? And is the whole meaning 
conveyed by these two portions of the word distinctly, or by 
them taken jointly?" "In medicine and chemistry they are 
just sufficiently advanced to talk of substances being moist, dry> 
hot, &c., in the third or fourth degree ; to dissuade from phys- 
icking, or letting blood, on a Tuesday, or under a particular as- 
pect of the heavens ; and to be eager in the pursuit of the phi- 
losopher's stone, and the elixir of immortality." * 

The Rev. Mr. Wilson, in a sermon on behalf of the Scotch 
Missionary Society, and dedicated to the Right Hon. Sir Robert 
Grant, governor of Bombay, preached in Bombay, November? 
1835, touches this matter briefly ; and I quote some of bis remarks^ 
because of the high authority on which they come. Speaking 
of the appropriation of the lac of rupees, he remarks, " We, the 
representatives of the British nation in India, instead of applying 
this grant wholly to the diffusion of a knowledge of the literature 
and science of the West, as, we must suppose, was intended, 
employed most of it in the support of colleges for teaching pen- 
sioned students the elements of the Sunscrit and Arabic lan- 
guages, and inculcating through them the immoral precepts of 
the Vedas and Purannas, the aphorisms of di'eamy and obsolete 
legislators, and the prescriptions of quack doctors and alche- 
mists ; or in printing Oriental books to fill the shelves of the 
learned and curious, but illiberal and iniphilanthroi)ic confederacy, 
of English and French antiquarians." 

This policy of the committee led also to the expenditure of 
enormous sums in procuring translations of elevated scientific 
works into those languages, and printing original Arabic, Persian, 
and Sunscrit works hitherto unknown to Europe. Of the books 
printed by the committee up to 1832, there were of Simscrit thir- 
teen thousand volumes, of Arabic five thousand, Persian two thou- 
sand five hundred, Hindu two thousand. A large proportion of 
these are quarto volumes, of seven hundred to eight hundred pages, 
and printed in editions of five himdred copies. Of course, were 
they ever so valuable, they could not be generally diffused over 
an empire of two millions of inhabitants. Not a single work was 
printed in the prevailing and spoken languages of India! The 
books thus brought forth as treasures of Oriental literature, were 
indeed such to some philologists of Europe ; but false philosophy, 
fabulous histories, and impure romances, could do no good to 
Hindus, even supposing the mass of the people could have 
read them. 

* Heber. 



CALCUTTA. 235 

The policy of the committee, as at present constituted, is, 
to cultivate Western, rather tiian Eastern literature, and to dilliise 
modern science and arts, by extending a knowledge of the Eng- 
lish language, and by mu]tij)lying valuable works in the vidgar 
tongues. In accomplishing this important change, perhaps no 
man has been more instrumental than C. E. Trevelyan, Esq., of 
the Bengal civil service, to whom Lidia is, in many other respects, 
greatly indebted. 

The stipends which Avere paid to pupils in the Arabic, Sun- 
scrit, and Persian languages, are now refused to new applicants, 
and expire as vacancies occur. This change not only adds to 
the available funds of the committee, but leaves the dead lan- 
guages to be cultivated, just so far as their intrinsic worth shall 
induce the native. In all the new institutions, pupils are ad- 
mitted without distinction of caste. 

The prospect now is, that English, with its vast stores of 
knowledge, in every department, will become the classical lan- 
guage of the country.* The holders of office, and influential 
natives generally, of the next generation, will be enlightened 
beyond what could have ever been hoped for, under the old 
system. Some of those who give themselves to literary pur- 
suits, will no doubt acquire such a mastery of certain sciences, 
as to become able to bring forth works of great utility in their 
mother tongue. By such works, and not by translations made 
by foreigners, light may spread to all the people, and this vast 
continent be brought forth into a woithy place among the 
nations. 

Missionaries long since saw this subject as the education com- 
mittee now see it, and thousands of natives, in Calcutta alone, 
have been taught in their schools to read English. There are 
probably now in that city not less than four thousand youths 
receiving an English education. In the Hindu College, estab- 
lished in 1816, and conducted wholly with reference to English, 
there are four hundred and seven students, of which three 

* When we consider the vast spread of the British empire in India, the dif- 
fusion of the Eng'lish lang'uage over the whole continent of North America, 
and many of the West India islands, the establishment of British laws and 
language in all South Africa and Australia, and the growing colonies on the 
west coast of Africa, it is not unreasonable to anticipate the prevalence of our 
language, at no distant day, among millions in all quarters of the globe. 



236 HINDUSTAN. 

hundred and fifty-six pny fiom five to seven rupees a month 
for tuition, while tlie Sunscrit College, where fifty-seven 
students receive a stipend of from six to eight rupees per month, 
and the rest are taught gratuitously, there are but one liundred 
and thirty-five pupils. Li the Arabic College are two hundred 
students, one hundred and thirty-four of whom study English, 
and most of the I'emainder receive stipends. The Hoogly Col- 
lege has grown out of the Hoogly School, in which the Eng- 
lish language was always a primary object. Having received 
endowments from a native gentleman, yielding annually 100,000 
rupees, it has recently been thrown open to receive more pupils ; 
and already fifteen hundred students have entered the " western 
department, " that is, to study English, and English literature 
exclusively. About three hundred have entered to study Eng- 
lish, in connection with Oriental literature ; and two hundi'ed to 
study Arabic and Persian exclusively. 

A further evidence of the present demand for English, is seen 
in the operations of the Calcutta School-book Society. This m- 
stitution prints elementary books, in all the languages required 
by schools in the presidency, at the cheapest possible rate ; and 
from its depositor)^, inost schools are supplied, in whole or in 
I)art. The ibllowing summary of sales is from the last annual 
report, viz. : — 

English 31,G49 books. 

Anglo- Asiatic (i. e. in the Roman Chai-acter). 4,525 " 

Bengalee 5,754 " 

Hindui 4,171 « 

Hindustani 3,384 « 

Persian ] ,454 " 

Oriya 834 « 

Arabic 36 " 

Sunscrit 16 « 

With this impulse in favor of the English language, and 
European literature, has sprung up, chiefly through the same 
instrumentality, another, equally strong, in favor of using the 
Roman letters for Indian languages. 1 regard this as scarcely 
less important than the other, and liave briefly handled the point 
in some remarks on "The mode of conducting missions," 
in Part IV 



CALCUTTA. 237 

Thiit the elements of society are not stagnant in Calcutta, and 
that light is breaking in upon the public mind, is evinced, among 
other proofs, by the present state of the native newspaper i)ress. 
Formerly there was no such thing in the city ; now there are 
seven or eight. Among them are " The Durj)in," published in 
Bengalee and English, by nominal Christians, but somewhat neu- 
ter; the " Chundrika," strongly in favor of the entire idolatrous 
system; the "Cowmoodee," temperate and conciliatory, and reject- 
ing the grosser Hindu superstitions, but decidedly polytheistic. 
The "Reformer," in the English language entirely, and the first 
newspaper conducted in English by natives, advocates the Ve- 
dant system, but is temperate. The " Inquirer," also in the Eng- 
lish language, is the organ of the education party among the 
natives. The " Gyananeshun," wholly in the Bengal language, 
resolutely attacks the Brahminical order, and all the monstrous 
rites and ceremonies of the Hindus. There is another, pub- 
lished in the Persian language, which is conducted with consid- 
erable talent, but chiefly occupied with matter not generally 
interesting to Hindus or English. All these are in addition to 
the various newspapers, journals, and other periodicals published 
by Britons, of which there are not few, and several of them 
decidedly pure and religions in tlieir character. For English 
readers there are several newspapers and magazines, and two 
medical journals. The Asiatic Society, founded in 1784, con- 
tiiuies its elevated career, and annually renders important contri- 
butions to general, as well as Oriental science and literature. 
The Calcutta Christian Observer is an admirable monthly, sus- 
tained by all persuasions, and replete with information, not only 
on missionary, but scientific and literary sulijects. 

The Hindu and Mussulman religious edifices in Calcutta are 
few and mean; strongly contrasting with those in some other 
])arts of the country, and with the stupendous pagodas .nnd 
splendid zayats of the Burmans. The mosques resemble Orien- 
tal mausoleums, seldom larger than a native's hut, and often not 
bigger than a dog-house. The dome is almost always semi- 
spherical, and generally the plaster, Avhich covers the brick walls, 
is wrought into minute ornaments, of Arabesque tracery; not al- 
ways tasteful, or even chaste. Tombs, both for Europeans and 
rich natives, are often so built, that natives might dwell in them 
very comfortably, and remind one of some passages in Scripture, 
where lunatics and others are said to live in tombs. They re- 
semble handsome summer-houses, and afford all the shelter a 
Hindu desires, and much more than he often enjoys. 



233 HINDUSTAN. 

The conspicuousness of the late Ram Mohun Roy, and the 
eclat given for a time to tiie reformation, which he was supposed 
to he eftecting, called me to his meeting with feelings of no 
ordinary interest. The Rev. Mr. Lacroix, to whom the language 
is perfectly familiar, kindly took me to the Brornlux Sobha, as the 
congregation is called, and interpreted for me the suhstance of 
the various exercises. We found the place to be a commodious 
hall, in a respectable Hindu dwelling-house. There was no idol, 
or idolatrous representation, of any kind. On a small stage, 
raised about eighteen inches from the floor, handsomely car- 
peted, sat cross-legged two respectable-looking pundits. One 
side of the room was s])read with clean cloths for the native 
attendants, who sat after the manner of the country; azid on the 
other w^ere chairs for the accommodation of strangers. In the 
centre, and opposite to the rostrum, lay some native musical 
instruments, and a violin. The room was well lighted, and the 
punkas of course waved overhead. 

One of the pundits opened the services by reading Sunscrit, 
from a loose palm-leaf held in liis hand, stopj)ing at every two 
or three words, to e.xi)Ound and enforce. The subject was 
knowledge — what it was, and what it was not, &c. Abstract 
ethical questions were discussed, not unlike the fashion of the 
old scholastics ; but no moral deductions were made, nor any 
thing said to improve the hearers. The whole discourse must 
liave been unintelligible to most of them. 

The other then read a discourse in Bengalee, consisting 
chiefly of explanfitions of their religious system, and encomiums 
on it. He particularly dwelt on its liberality ; boasting that they 
quarrelled with no name or persuasion ; and assuring us, that it 
was of no consequence whether we worshipped idols, Mahomet, 
Jesus Christ, or the Virgin Mary ; that it was not possible to 
come to any certain knowledge respecting religious things; and 
tliat if any man believed his way to be right, tliat way was right for 
him. These discomses extended to about an hour ; and the rest 
of the time, about another hour, was occupied with music. At 
the close of the preaching, professed musicians advanced to the 
instruments, and, seating themselves on the mats, put them in 
tune, with the usual amount of discord. Two of them then 
Bang several hymns, with instruments accompanying it. The 
themes were the unity of the Divine Essence, and the various attri- 
butes of majesty and power. No one joined the strain, nor were 
there any bonks to enable them to do so. Nothing could be 
less reverent or devotional, than the manner of the musicians. 



CALCUTTA. 239 

They looked about them witli all possible self-complacency, 
making unmeaning gestures, bowing and blinking to each other, 
and vociferating with such a nasal twang, that it was a re- 
lief when they had finished. I tliouglit it was literally 
such music as the poet speaks of — intended " to soothe savage 
breasts;" for certainly no other could well endure it. 

On their retiring, a very difterent singer took the place, and 
proceeded for half an hour with great power of execution, and 
not a little taste. His voice was uncommonly fine. He accom- 
panied himself skilfully on the native guitar. The violin had 
been well played from the beginning, and the music was now 
truly excellent, furnishing, 1 was informed, a lair specimen of the 
best Bengal art. Tlie singer, as well as the violinist, is distin- 
guished at the nautch entertainments of the city. The subject 
was still the attributes of God. The Bengalee language has, for 
this purpose, a noble advantage over ours, in numerous expres- 
sions derived from the Sunscrit, which utter in a single ivord 
what may be called the negative attributes, and which we cannot 
express with brevity ; such as, " He that needs no refuge ; " " He 
that is never perplexed ;" " He that can never grow weary ;" &c. 
The singer used these epithets with great majesty ; using ani- 
mated gestures, and with a countenance finely varying with the 
theme. At the close of this exercise, the assembly broke up. 

No female was present, nor do any ever attend. Most of the 
congregation came in only in time to hear the music, and stood 
near the staircase, not without disorder. The number of the 
regular attendants was not over twenty. I am informed, thirty 
is the largest number ever present. The spectatoi-s were some- 
what more numerous. 

Few of the professed adherents are so confident of their recti- 
tude, as to detach themselves wholly from the common religious 
customs, though more negligent in these matters than their neigh- 
bors. The very pundits officiate, not because converts to these 
opinions, (for such they do not profess to be,) but because regularly 
paid for their services. One of them, in his discourse this evening, 
expressly told us that there was no impropriety in worshipping 
idols — a doctrine which R. Roy would not admit. The musi- 
cians also are paid, and perform here for the same reasons that 
they do at a nautch, so that the whole concern is sustained by 
the money of a few friends, and descendants of R. Roy. 

Such is the boasted reformation of Ram Mohun Roy Not 
another congregation of his followers is fo<md in all Lidia! Of 
his labors as a reformer, this is the sum : — Fifty or a hundred 



240 HINDUSTAN. 

persons rendered negligent of the national religion, or gathered 
here because they were so before, without being a whit the 
better in their private life or public influence; in soHie cases, 
adding the sins of Europeans to those of their countrymen ; 
without being disentangled from the horrid «ystem ot the Shas- 
ters ; without being ready, or without the moral courage, to re- 
store to their own wives and daughters the rights of human 
nature. With all the su{>eriority to prejudice and custom, 
boasted by Ram Mohuu Roy, he did uotlimg lor the elevation of 
the sex. 

A striking instance of this occurred, not veiy long since, in 
the case of D. T., one of his most intelligent followers. 
This gentleman is a partner in a European house, in the habit 
of mixing with Euroj)ean gentlemen, and evidently much more 
enlightened than most of his countrymen. Yet was he so 
much under the influence of Hindu public opinion, as to marry 
his daughter to a Ku-len Brahmin, lor the ])urpose of elevating 
the family above the reproach occasioned by one of his ances- 
tors, with many others, having been compelled to eat beef, by a 
Mahometan enemy named Per Ali. The young lady is well 
educated, reads and writes English, and is remarkably intelligent. 
The Brahmin is as ignorant as the rest of his class, and will 
probably marry others, as avarice or caprice may move him. 
Brahmins of this caste may marry any number of wives, but are 
not bound to live with them. They not unfrequently leave a wife 
after a few weeks, and never see her again. She is thus doomed 
to hopeless widowhood, merely to gratify the ambition of her 
family. Thus completely is RamMohun Roy s principal disciple 
under the influence of a thraldom which that great man professed 
to despise. A good school would have done more than all that 
has been accomplished by the Bromha Sobha. We should ex- 
pect pupils who had become so far released from Hindu preju 
dice, to advance to a complete emancipation. But this people 
show no tendency to advance ; they have long stood still ; and 
every thing already wears an aspect of decrepitude and decay. 
What a monument of the entire inelficacy of unassisted reason, to 
ameliorate the religious condition of any people ! Already may 
the undertaking of this truly great man be pronounced a failure ; 
and soon all traces of it will be lost from earth. 

R. Roy established a weekly newspaper, called the Re- 
former, which was intended chiefly to excite among those 
Hindus who understand English, a desire for improvement in 
their civil condition. It is yet continued, edited by an intelligent 



CALCUTTA. 241 

native ; tlicugh uicori)oiated now with a Calcutta paper, coji- 
ckicted by a European. It has often contained weil-wiitten 
papei-s against Clmrruck Pooja, Ku-ien marriages, and the otlier 
abominations of the Hindu system, and is, doubtless, as at present 
conducted, a valuable journal. 

R. Koy was not a Unitarian Christian, but a Unitarian Hindu. 
He believed tiiat there was such a person as Jesus Christ, and 
that he was the best moral teacher the world ever saw; but 
regarded his death as having no efhcacy of atonement. His 
capacious nfmd, and extensive knowledge of the Shasters, im- 
pelled him to abhor the abominations of the Veda, and the mon- 
strosities of its thirty-three millions of gods. But he Ibund in 
the Vedanta Sar (an exposition of the four Vedas) a sort of Uni- 
tarianism, which he endeavored on all occasions to disseminate. 
The doctrine might as well be called pantheism ; for it main- 
tains the old Pythagorean doctrine, that God is the soul of the 
world, and that every animal, plant, or stone, is thereibre part of 
Deity. It makes perfect religion to consist in knowledge alone, 
or the realizing in eveiy tiling the Supreme Beuig; and ex- 
cludes ceremonies of all kinds. 

There was formerly a Unitarian Christian congregation in 
Calcutta, established under the care of Ilev. W. Adams, (previ- 
ously a missionary,) who met for a short time at a private house. 
The first Sunday they had sLxty or seventy persons present, the 
second fifty ; and soon only five attended. Mr. Adams, thus dis- 
concerted, became the editor of a paper, and subsequently ac- 
cepted an appointment under govermnent, to visit various parts 
of India, and to report on the state of education in the interior. 
In this last capacity, he has acquired honorable distinction, and 
increasing usefulness. His reports are exciting great attention, 
and show not only unwearied industry, but superior talents. 

The population of Calcutta is ascertained, by a census just 
taken, to be 22f),000 within the ditch ; and .500,000 ai"e sui)posetl 
to reside in the immediate suburbs. Within a circuit of twenty 
miles, the population is generally set down at two millions. Of 
the number within the city, about 130,000 are Hindus, fiO,000 
Mussulmans, 3000 English, and 3000 Portuguese, or Indo-Britons ; 
the rest are French, Chinese, Armenians, Jews, Moguls, Parsees, 
Arabs, Mugs, Madrasees, &c. The whole number of houses is 
66,000; of which nearly 15,000 are brick ; the rest are of mud or 
mats. Officers stationed at the principal avenues into the city, 

11 



242 HINDUSTAN. 

found that aliout 100,000 persons enter daily from tlie surround- 
ing villages ; chiefly sircars, clerks, servants, fruiterers, &c. 

The means now in operation, for the education and religious 
instruction of this vast j)opidation, have in part been mentioned. 
That they are so great, is matter of devout thanksgiving and 
encouragement; but their distressing inadequacy to the wants 
of such a multitude is obvious. 

Society in Calcutta, like that of other places, where a large 
portion of the gentry live on stated salaries, has a tendency to 
extravagance. Most families live fully up to their income, and 
many, especially junior officers, go deeply in debt. The ex- 
penses of living are, in their chief points, as follows: — Servants' 
wages, from four to six rupees, without food or lodging; rent of 
a small, plain house, fifty to eighty rupees a month ; rice, three 
and a half rupees a maund ; fowls, two to three annas each ; 
ducks, five to six annas apiece ; washing, three rupees per hun- 
dred pieces ; board and lodging of one person, per mouth, in a 
plain way, fifty rupees. 

A few years since, the state of morals was generally bad, both 
m the city and Mofussil. Scarcely any officers or civil ser- 
vants were pious, and the marriage tie seemed held in contem})t. 
Gross immoralities are now more rare, and, where they exist, 
less shamelessly exposed. A considerable number of distin- 
guished individuals, both in the civil and military service, are not 
only avowedly, but earnestly pious. The strong and constant 
resistance, lately made by the government of India to the spread 
of the gospel, is within the memory of every reader. This re- 
sistance was enforced and stimulated by almost every European 
resident, especially among the higher classes. They really be- 
lieved, that to permit missionary operations, was to hazard their 
possession of the country ; and that violent commotions on the 
part of the people, would follow any attempt to overturn their 
religion. Now, the missionary, in every part of India, meets 
kind and respectful treatment from Europeans, and in many 
places liberal contributions are made toward their schools. It 
is found that the natives can hear their religion pronounced 
false, and even hold animated debates on the subject, without 
dreaming of revolt. No convulsions have ever resulted from 
evangelical labor, nor have any chiefs taken ofieuce, on this ac- 
count, against the government. 

There is still room for great improvement, especially in regard 
to the observance of the Sabbath. JMerchants, tradesmen, and 



CALCUTTA. 243 

mechanics, generally, keep thcii" people at work on tliat clay as 
usual Buildings go on, ship-yards resound with the hannner 
arid axe, goods ai-e borne through the streets, bazars are open, 
the gentry take their usual drive, and Sunday is as little discov- 
erable by appearances as i« Paris. The general reason given is, 
that the religion of the laborers is not infringed. But it should 
not be forgotten that the commandment is — "Thou shalt not 
do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy man-ser- 
vant, nor thy maid-servant, nor thy cattle, nor the strange, that 
is within thy gates." 

The state of religion, as we commonly understand that phrase, 
is veiy low, I attended most of the principal Protestant places 
of worship, and, by actual enumeration, ibund the largest audi- 
ence not to exceed two hundred and fifty persons. Several of 
them were not more than one third that number. The church 
in the fort, being attended by troops, accortling to regulation, is 
full. The monthly conceit of prayer is held uiiitedly by all the 
churches except one. At one of these meetings which I at- 
tended, only sixty persons were present, and in the other about 
eighty. During the week, there are few prayer-zneetings ; and 
those which 1 attended seldom had more than from six to ten 
persons present. I could not heaj- of a single Sunday School in 
the city. The aimouncement of the anniversaries of the Tract 
and Bible Societies awakened the most pleasing expectations ; 
but at neither of them were there more than seventy-five j)ersous 
present, beside the ministers. 

Benevolent institutions are numerous, and generally supported 
with great liberality. Beside those which have been named, are 
the Bible Association, the Committee of the Church Mission- 
ary Society, the Chui-ch Missionary Association, the Diocesan 
Committee for promoting Christian Knowledge, the Auxiliary 
Missionary Society, the Bethel Union, the Seaman's Friend So 
ciety, the Military Oiphan Society, the Militai-y Widows' Fund, 
Lord Clive's Fund, the King's Military Fund, the Marine Pension 
Fund, the Civil Fund, the Mariners' and General Widows' Fund, 
the Presidency General Hospital, the Native Hospital, the Hos- 
pital for Native Lunatics, the Government Establislmient for 
Vaccination, the Charitable Fund for the Relief of Distressed 
Europeans, the European Female Orphan Society. 

Calcutta has sixteen Episcopal clergymen, viz., six Company's 
chaplains, two chaplains to institutions, two professors in Bishop's 



244 HINDDSTAN. 

College, and six Missionai-ies. There are also one Scotch Kirk 
chaplain, one pastor, and three niissionaiies of the Independent 
persuasion, two Scotch Presbyterians, and six Baptist missionaries, 
and several others; making, in all, with the bishop, mariners' 
minister, &c., about thirty-five Christian ministers, beside those 
of the Ainienian, Greek, and Catholic churches. 

There are in the city eleven Christian places of worship, 
generally large, where services are held every Sunday in English. 
Of these, five ai-e Episcopal, two Baptist, one Scotch, one Inde- 
pendent, and a floating chapel, for seamen. There are also 
three Roman Catholic churches, one Armenian, and one Greek. 
At Ilowrah, Kidderpore, and other adjacejit villages, preaching 
in English is also regularly maintained. Each of the Baptist 
churches have handsome brick meeting-houses, Mr. Yates is 
pastor in Circidar Road ; Mr. Robinson was, till recently, settled 
over Lalibazar, and Mr. Pearce over the Bengaleese. A vast print- 
ing-office and type foundry, gradually enlarged to its present di- 
mensions at a cost of nearly $100,000, with three excel'eut dwell- 
ing-houses, have ]>een erected, without jiecuniaiy aid from Eng- 
land, and chiefly through the profits on the printing-office. Thia 
establishment not only prints largely in English for government 
and individuals, but in all the written Oriental languages, and 
casts tv'pe in most of them. Six presses, on an average, are con- 
stantly employed in printing the Scriptures. Mr. Yates, beside 
officiating as English pastor, has acquired great celebrity for 
skill in Bengalee and Hhidustanee, and lor his admirable revision 
of those versions. He seems raised up to complete the labors 
of Carey in these important translations. Many recollect with 
pleasure his visit to this country. 

Beside the places of worship for foreigners, there are, in and 
around the city, various preaching bungalows and chapels for 
the natives. Of these, four are maintained by Episcopalians, 
four by Baptists, five by Independents, and one by the Scotch 
Kirk. Some of these are daily occupied, and, in general, with 
encomaging attendance. 

I was several times present on these occasions, in diflTerent 
parts of the citA', and was deep!}' interested with the decorum 
and earnestness of attention shown by ihe auditors. As a speci- 
men of these occasions, I will describe one which I attended 
with the Rev. IMr. La Croix, a German missionary, who hns 
acquired such a command of the Bengalee, as to be as much at 



CALCUTTA. 245 

home in it as in his mother tongue. He devotes himself wholly 
to preaching and other evangelical labors, and unites great 
bodily vigor to untiring energy, and ardent interest in his work. 

On arriving at the place, no one had assembled ; but no sooner 
were we seated, than some passers-by began to collect, and the 
number gradually mcreased, during the services, to seventy or 
eighty. Some sat do\vn, but the greater part remained standing, 
and scarcely advanced beyond the door. For a while, the 
preacher went on expounding and arguing, without interruption; 
but at length some well-dressed persons proposed objections, 
and but for the skill of the missionary, the sermon would have 
degenerated uito a dispute. The objections showed not only 
acuteness, but often considerable knowledge of the Christian 
Scriptures. Some countenances evinced deep anxiety. Some- 
times there was a general murmur of applause, when strong 
arguments were advanced, or satisfactoiy expositions given. At 
the close of the meeting, many accepted tracts, selecting such as 
they had not seen before. One of the most venerable hearers, 
•and a chief speaker, approached us as we came away, and pro- 
nounced upon us, in his o^\^i manner, but very solemnly, a cordial 
benediction ; declai-uig, at the same time, that what we advanced 
was all good ; that, no doubt, Christianity was the best religion, 
but that too many difficulties were yet in the way, to -permit him 
and his countrymen to embrace it. I am sure no Christian could 
be present on these occasions without being satisfied of the im- 
portance of mauitaining these efforts, and cheered to exertions 
for their extension.* 

I attended woi-ship, on several occasions, at Rev. W. H. 
Pearce's native chapel ; and was highly gratified, not only with 
the number present, and their deportment, but especially with 
the psalmody. All united, with great animation, in this delight- 
ful part of Christian worship. 

* There is the fullest evidence that the Hindu system has received, in Bengal, a 
great check. Few of the numerous individuals who have received education in the 
missionary and government schools, retain confidence in the system of their fathers. 
A smattering of geography and astronomy, is itself sufiicient to break the power of 
the prevailing belief on the mind of the pupil. Multitudes are convinced that their 
system is wrong, who are yet retained in the ranks of idolatry or Mahometanism by 
B fear, lest possibly, the faith of their fathers may be best for them, and a want of 
principle, sufficient to encounter opposition and sufferiag. But their stated obser- 
vances are coldly rendered; their children are not brought up with the old enthusiasm 
for Ibe national faith ; and a thousand acts and expressions apprise those children 
of their parents' true Sentiments. These, together with the numerous youths who 
are receiving education from Jiuropeaus, already form a considerable body of the 



246 SERAMPORE. 

The name of Serampore is so intimately associated with the 
history of modern missions, especially those of the Baptist de- 
nomination, that I of course spent some time there. A pleasant 
i"ide of fifteen miles brought me to Barrackpore, a military sta- 
tion on the river side opposite to Serampore, and the seat of the 
governor-general's country residence. The road is bordered 
w^ith fine trees the whole distance, and the country, as far as 
the eye can reach, is in high cultivation. Many laborers were 
ploughing — an operation which stirs up but a couple of inches 
of soil, and would call forth the surprise and contempt of a New- 
England farmer. Tlie plough costs but fitly cents, and the min- 
iature oxen which draw it, but five dollars the pair. The latter 
are generally marked all over with lines and circles, burnt upon 
their skin. The view of Serampore from the river, is exceed- 
ingly attractive. The same architecture which prevails at Cal- 
cutta, gives the houses the appearance of elegant marble villas; 
and the huge college, with its superb columns, confers dignity on 
the whole scene. The river is here about eight hundred or a 
thousand yards wide, placid, and full of boats. 

The population of Serampore is fifteen thousand. About one 
hundred of the houses are designed for Europeans, but nearly 
half of them are empty. I was kindly received by the venerable 
survivor of that noble triumvirate, which will never be forgotten 
while missions retain an advocate. Though in his sixty-ninth year, 
Dr. Marshman's eye is not dim, nor his step slow. He leads the 
singing at family worship, with a clear and full voice ; preaches 
with energy; walks rapidly several miles every morning, and 
devotes as many hours every day to stud}', as at any former })eriod. 
His school for boys, and Mrs. M.'s for girls, are continued, though 
less lucrative than hitherto, from the number of similar ones 
now established in the country. 

Every walk through the town and its environs, presents 
objects which awaken tender and serious thought. There 
is the Ghaut, where, thiity-six years ago, Marshman and his 
family landed, friendless and discouraged by the opposition 
of the Company's government. There, twenty -four years ago, 
landed Harriet Newell and Ann H. Judson, whose feet now tread 
the starry plain. And up those steps, for many years, mission- 
rising generation. Brahmins are not venerated as heretofore. I have often seen the 
f acred thread over the shoulders of common sepoys, market-men, mechanica, and 
door-keepers. 



HINDUSTAN. 247 

aries of all names and parties have ascended, to receive a frater- 
nal welcome to India. 

Close by are part of the foundations of the houses of Carey 
and Ward, long since overturned by the encroachments of the 
river. Further down is the ])rinting-office, whence so many 
thousands of thousands of portions of the word of God, in lan- 
guages spoken by more than half the pagan ivorld, have been 
j)roduced. Still further is the college, a superb and vast edifice, 
the principal hall of which is said to be tiie largest in India. It 
is a chaste and noble building, constructed of the most durable 
materials throughout. The staircases are of ornamental cast 
iron, imported from England at great expense. Its library is 
exceedingly valuable, and contains the immense collection of 
dried botanic specimens by Dr. Carey. Counected with the in- 
stitution are about one hundred pupils, but for the most part 
young, and studying only preparatory branches. At this time, 
there are but two regular students in the college proper. The 
building was erected when there were no similar institutions in 
Lidia, and shows the capacious plans and noble spirit of its 
founders. But the starting up of so mariy schools of similar 
character, and other causes, have prevented the ex])ected acces- 
sion of students. There is reason to hope that the active opera- 
lion of the numerous elementary schools in the vicinity will, ere 
long, create a race of scholars prepared to proceed in the elevated 
course of studies intended to be here pursued. 

In the rear of the college are two professors' houses, in one 
of which Carey spent his last years. The room in which he died 
called up indescribable sensations, and I trust wrought improve- 
ment upon my spirit. Behind is the extensive botanic garden, 
where that wonderful man, by way of relaxation, gathered a vast 
collection of trees, flowers, fruits, and vegetables, from every part 
of India, and from whence he diffused a taste for natural science, 
which is now yielding invaluable results. 

A handsome church was built in the town, by the Danish gov- 
ernment, many years ago ; but no chaplain has ever been ap- 
pointed, and the missionaries have always officiated there. They 
have, beside this, a commodious chapel of their own, where wor- 
ship is performed on week days and Sunday evenings, and a 
considerable church of natives. A mile and a half from town is 
another. 

A little to the north of the town, in a calm and retired spot, is 
the mission grave-yard, surrounded with palm groves. It con- 



248 SERAMPORE. 

tains about an acre, enclosed with a good brick wall ; and along 
its nice gravel walks are mahogany trees, set at proper distances. 
The monument for Ward is a circular pavilion, beautiful and 
chaste, with a suitable inscription on one side, read from witliin. 
Carey's is a plain cenotaph, built many yeai-s ago, for some of 
his family, and now bearing additional inscriptions for hunself 
and his widow. His own epitaph, by his express direction, is 
merely this : — 

WILLIAM CARET, 

BoEN 17th of August, 1761 

Died 9th of June, 1834. 

"A wretched, poor, and helpless ■worm, 
On iliy kind amis I fall." 

Mrs. Carey, his third wife, died about a year after her husband. 
Mr. Ward's widow survived him ten years. Carey's son is now 
a missionary in the upper provinces. Ward left two daughters, 
both of whom are pious, and have been married several years. 

This mission was commenced in 1793. Its historj' is too well 
known to leave me the necessity of describing it, or dwelling on 
its firiits. It was the commencement of tliose grand operations, 
which we trust the church will never relinquish till the eai'th be 
filled with the knowledge of the Lord. Witli the exception of 
what had been done in the Tamul and Malayalim languages, the 
whole of India was then entirely destitute of the Scriptures in 
their vernacular tongues. Few m number, and sustained by 
their own resources, the missionaries have given the world the 
whole Bible m Sunscrit, Chinese, Bengalee, Hindu, Mahratta, 
Oriya, Sikh, Pushtu or Afghan, Cashmere, and Assamee ; and the 
New Testament in the Gujeratee, Kunkun, Multanee, Bikaneer 
Bhugulcund, Maruar, Nepaul, Haiotee, Kanoja, Mugudh, Oojuy- 
i-ne. Jumbo, Bhutneer, Munipore, Bnij, Kemaoon, Shree-nagur, 
and Palpa ; beside portions of the New Testament in various 
otlier languages. Some of these versions have been repeatedly 
revised, and successive editions printed. 

There are now eighteen mission stations, and twenty-two 
churches, coimected with Serampore ; at which are laboring five 
Europeans, and twenty-two Indo-Britons, with twenty-five native 
preachers and catechists. Of tlie eleven members which con- 
stituted the first church in India, Mr. Marshman and wife alone 
remain. 

The late transfer of the printing-office, and steam paper-mill, 



HINDUSTAN. 249 

to I\Ir. John C. Marshman, has been matter of much discussion, 
and seems not cieaj-iy understood. The explanation given nie on 
tlie spot amounted to tliis : Some years before Dr. Carey's death, 
tlie concern was deemed bankrupt. Tlie printing-office, pa})er- 
mill, and otlier proj)erty, valued at about 126,000 rupees, was 
made over, in fee simple, to iMr, J. C. M. in consideration of his 
assuming all the debts. To whom these debts are due, and for 
what, and what portion has been paid, were not mentioned, and 
I felt unauthorized to ask. It is much to be regretted that this 
transfer was not made public, till so long after its execution, and 
till Carey was no more. No one could so satisfactorily have 
explained the matter to the public. The controversy is now use- 
less, as a question of property. The lots and buildings are re- 
duced to a value almost uoininal. Since the place ceased to be 
an asylum lor debtors, who fled hither from the British terri- 
tories, it has constantly decayed. At this moment Mr. J. C. M. is 
about to remove the printing-office to a new building of his own, 
not on tlie Society's land, and the old office is almost a ruin. 
One dwelling-house, now in good order, and valuable, is nearly 
tlie sum of all the English Society's acknowledged property. 

One thing is certain — that there have seldom appeared men 
so disinterested as Carey, Marshman, and Ward. Carey received, 
for upwards of thirty years, more than five hundred dollars a 
month, as professor in the College of Fort William, and Bengalee 
translator to government. Ward earned equally large sums in the 
printing-office, as did Mr. and Mrs. Marshman by their school. 
Yet, as Dr. M. assured me, they ate at a connnon table, and drew 
from the common fund only the paltry sum of twelve rupees per 
month each ! The rest went for the support of out-stations, 
casting types, and the translating and printing of the sacred 
Scriptiu-es. The expense of the Chinese version alone, for pun- 
dits, types, &c., exceeded a hundred thousand dollai's! 

The agreement made at an early period, by the Serampore 
brethren, one with another, and i)nblished to the world, is worthy 
of all praise; especially the following extract: "Let us give 
ourselves up unreseivedly to this glorious cause. Let us never 
think that our time, our gifts, our strength, our families, or even 
the clothes we weai', are our own. Let us sanctify them all to 
God and his cause. O that he may sanctify us for his work ! 
Let us forever shut out the idea, of laying up a cowiy for our- 
selves or our children. If we give up the resolution whicli was 
formed on the subject of private trade, when we first united at 
Serampore, the mission is from that hour a lost cause. A world- 



250 



SERAMPORE. 



ly spirit, quarrels, aiid every evil work, will succeed, the moment 
it is admitted that each brother may do something on his own 
account. Woe to that man wlio shall ever make the smallest 
movement toward such a measure. Let us continually watcli 
against a worldly spirit, and cultivate a Christian indifference 
towards eveiy indulgence. Rather let us bear hardness as good 
soldiers of Jesus Clu"ist, and endeavor to learn in every state to 
be content." 

Never were there more laborious men than the Serampore 
missionaries, and never shall we see stronger temptations to 
amass wealth, relinquished for the cause of Christ. The arrange- 
ment for drawing six dollars a month for personal expenses 
was discontinued in 1817, and each drew what he needed ; but 
neitlier of them laid up property for liimself Carey died with- 
out leaving his widow any thing. Ward left only about five 
thousand dollars, the proceeds of liis private property, put to in- 
terest on his first leaving England. Marslnnan is known to be 
poor; and his style of living, now at least, is more frugal than 
tJiat of almost any other missionary I saw in Hindustan. Many 
of his measures are generally disapproved, but his diligence 
and true greatness must stand contested. It cannot be said the 
gloiy of Serampore is departed. Though it has now become a 
mere unit among missions, its history will ever be one of the 
brightest pages m the records of modern benevolence. The 
benefits it has produced are lasting as tlie world. It has been 
swallowed up in more diffused endeavors, like the morning star 
giving place to day, — swallowed up in brighter light 




Bengal Mude ufCliuniing. 



251 



CHAPTER II. 

Madras — Catamarans — Difficulty of Landing — Black Town — Esplanade — 
Population — Illustrations of Scripture — State of Religion — Catliolics — 
Teloogoos — Travelling by Palankeen — Pondicherry — Cuddalore — 
Tranquebar — Combaconum — Taiijore — Koliihoff — Svvartz — Trichi- 
nopoly — Heber — Scringham — Slavery in Hindustan — Idolatry support- 
ed by Government — Brahmins and Brahminism — Progressive Poverty 
of the Country — Modern languages of Hindustan. 

A voTAGE of fourteen days, in a small trading vessel, without 
a white face in it but my own, brought me to anchor in the roads 
of Madras, January 26, 1837. It was a fortnight of great dis- 
comfort ; but I could not waive my rule of going in the &st 
vessel when my work at any place was done. Generally, if an 
opportunity is allowed to pass in India, weeks and even months 
elapse before the occurrence of another. Our captain, in this 
case, was a quiet native of Chittagong, and, though he had no 
means of ascertaining longitude, made a short and safe voyage 
by dead reckoning. By taking such a vessel, instead of an Euro- 
pean, I saved three fourths of the customary price of passage. 

There being no indentation of the coast, nor any island to 
break off the sea, a heavy swell rolls in throughout the year. 
Vessels anchor in the open roads; the large ones keeping a mile 
or two from shore. The swell keeps them pitching and rolling, 
as uncomfortably as when at sea. The danger is so great, during 
the south-west monsoon, that vessels are not allowed to lie here 
for several months m the year, and the anchorage seems de- 
serted. Cai-goes ai-e loaded and unloaded, by boats adapted for 
passing through the surf. Among the first objects that struck 
me, were the catamarans, gliding in every direction. These are 
exactly like a New England stone-sled. Three flattened tim- 
bers, eight or ten feet long, are tied together horizontally, and 
sharpened a little at the point. One or two men propel it with 
a paddle, flattened at both ends, and dip first on one side, and 
then on the other. They sit on the calves of their legs, with the 
toes inward, and in this position, which is the only one the case 
admits, they often remain for hours. The water, of course, 
comes up between the timbei's, and washes over the little raft, 
so that the men are kept wet to the middle. If they would carty 



252 MADRAS. 

any articles dry, which is seldom attempted, they construct a 
high pile of bushes hi the centre. When no boat could live five 
minutes, these catamarans go about in perfect safety. The men 
ai-e often washed oft", but instantly leap on again without alarm. 
A water-pioof cap, for tlie carriage of letters to and from newly- 
an-ived vessels, is almost their only article of dress. The rest is 
but a strip of cotton cloth, two or three mches wide, fastened, 
front and rear, to a twine tied round the hips. 

Landing seemed so difficult, though the weather was fine, that 
it was hard to conceive how goods could be conveyed without 
getting wet Yet these boatmen do it, and display energy and 
skill scarcely to be surpassed. Keejiing time to a rude tune, 
they now take long pulls, and now short ones, as the waves run 
past ; they at length push the boat forward on a foaming surf, 
and she is thrown upon the beach. As it recedes, some jump 
out with the ropes, and, at every returning wave, get her a little 
higher, till she lies still upon the sand. The operation is suffi- 
ciently disagreeable, especially to the timid. The passenger is 
not only almost thrown from his seat, by the heavy and repeated 
striking of the boat upon the beach, but is generally well 
sprinkled by the breakers dashing against her before she can be 
hauled up sufficiently. The boats are large and deep, made, 
without ribs or timbers, of thin, wide planks, waiped bjf fij-e to a 
proper shape, and fastened together by strong twine. Against 
the seams, straw and mud are fastened strongly, by the twine 
which ties the planks together. No nails ai-e used, for none 
could keep a boat together with such thumping. 

The city presents, from the sea, nothing to create large expec- 
tations. Only a few public buildings are visible, and not much 
of the town, as the site is quite level. It is, however, a noble 
city, and has many fine streets. The Black town, so called 
from the color of the natives, who reside theie, is wel! laid out, 
and is defended by a substantial brick wall. The houses are far 
better, on an average, than those of the natives in Calcutta. 
Though there are not so many fine residences of rich Baboos, as 
in that city, there are some scarcely surpassed in elegance by any 
in America. 

A s])ace of several miles in the rear of the Black-town is occu- 
pied by the Europeans. Their houses are not placed in rows, 
but scattered about, and embosomed in gardens and shrubbeiy. 
Trees are planted in rows along the principal avenues, and tlie 
number of pleasant drives surpasses those of any city I have yet 
seen in the East. 



HINDUSTAN. 



253 



Tlie fort is on the shore south of tlie Black-town, with a large 
open space between, reserved as an esplanade. On tlie mar- 
gin of this opening, next to the sea, and also below the Ibrt, is 
the fashionable evening drive. Here, weary of lassitude or 
labor, come all the gentry to enjoy the freshness and glory 
of sunset. The rushing of the ceaseless surf — the numerous 
vessels, of varied make — the cool sea breeze — the majestic 
ocean — the wide sweep of western sky — the superb equipages 
— the cheerful faces — and the cordial greetings — make it 
every way charming. In going to "the course," you meet, along 
the less pretending roads, merchants on their camels, Arabs on 
their steeds, Burmans and Moguls on their ponies, native gentle- 




Hindu Gentleman's Carriage 



men in their handsome bullock carriages; while the sircars, &c. 
are drawn by a single ox, in an indescribable sort of wheelbarrow, 
or are borne in palankeens. 

While in this city, famous for snake-charmers, I sent for some 
to show me their skill. They brought a boa constrictor, and 
several cobra de capels; the latter being, as is known, highly 
venomous, and generally fatal. They were in shallow baskets, 
coiled u|) as close as possible. The keeper had a simple flage- 
tlet ; on hearing a few notes of which, the snake gracefully erected 
half its length, and spread out its beautiful head and neck to 



254 MADRAS. 

a breadth of several inches. Tlie keeper sometimes ceased his 
music, and irritated tlie creature with his liand ; which it bit 
violently, but without injury, its fangs having been extracted. 

These men are often employed to draw forth from their holes 
snakes which infest gardens and old buildings. Playing oji 
theu' flageolet, they pass round the suspected places, and if 
serpents be there, are sure to bring them forth. Without per- 
mitting the music to cease, an attendant seizes the snake by the 
tail, and whirls it round so rapidly that it cannot bite ; sliding one 
hand up gradually, till he gets it tirmly by the neck; then, taking 
a little stone or shell, he crushes out the fangs, and puts it in his 
basket or bosom, and carries it away. The transaction forcibly 
reminds one of the passage. Psalm Iviii. 5, which compares the 
wicked, who persist in their ways in spite of counsel or entreaty, 
to serpents that will not be charmed. This text, as well as Jere- 
miah viii. 17, where Jehovah threatens to send among Israel 
"serpents which will not be charmed," shows that the trade of 
these men is of no recent date. 

The population of Madras, including all the villages within 
several miles, is generally reckoned at 420,000, But a census 
made in 1823 gave only 27,000 houses. This, at seven inhab- 
itants to a house, would make the population about 190,000. 
Large spaces, even within the walls, are wholly vacant. Allovv- 
mg for houses omitted in the census, the population is perhaps 
200,000. There are populous villages in the neighborhood, 
containing 100,000 more. One of the most striking peculiarities 
in the town is the universality with which males and females, 
old and young, bear upon their foreheads, arms, and breasts, the 
marks peculiar to their religion, or sect of it.* Some have a red 

* Those know liule of ihe world, who advance the existence of sects as an 
objection to Christianity. Over all Hither India, the same hooks are held 
sacred ; yet the community is divided into many sects, holding their preferences 
with bitter zeal and exclusiveness. Brahma has no followers, because, as the 
supreme God, he is above all concern with mortals. V'ishnu and Siva have 
each their sects, and even these are far from harmony. The worshippers of 
Vishnu are divided into twent}' sects; those of Siva into nine. There are four 
sects who adore Doorga, and ten devoted to various other objects, which, with 
some subdivisions, swell the number of Hindu sects to nearly seventy! Collis- 
ions, among these, are perpetual and rancorous. At Hurdwar, and many other 
places, scenes of violence and bloodshed invariably occur at the great annual 
festivals. The feuds of similar kind which prevail among Mussulmans, are 
well known, and the bloody character of their conflicts. It was thus also with 
Jews. Even the followers of Zoroaster, are stated by Gibbon to have been 



HINDUSTAN. 255 

or blue spot on their foreliead ; otliers blue, red, wliite, or yellow 
perpendicular lines ; others, horizontal lines. Some, in addition 
to these, have ashes or clay rubbed in lines on their arms and 
breast. 1 could not help recurring continually to that text, (Deu- 
teronomy xxxii. 5,) "Their spot is not the spot of his children." 
The allusion is doubtless to a similar custom. These marks are 
shown in the picture of a native woman carrying water page 2'23 
and of a Brahmin, page 278. The former shows also the cos- 
tume and ornaments of women in the lower classes, as I saw 
them in the street. The highest classes wear much the same, 
but of far costlier materials. 

Men of distinction have servants running before ; and at least 
two always run beside the carriage. Even persons on horse- 
back are never without one of these runners, who is called syce. 
It is astonishing how long these men, accustomed to the business 
from childhood, can endure. The rider never slacks his pace 
on their account, and they keep up during the whole drive. 
For a long time, the sight of these poor men destroyed the 
pleasure of my rides. They, however, do nothing else, and their 
labor, on the whole, is certainly far less than that of a mechanic 
with us. 

The incident of Elijah running before the chariot of Ahab, 
(1 Kings xviii. 46,) has been continually brought to recollection 
by this custom, wherever I have been in India. He had assumed 
an attitude of great grandeur, in mocking the national faith before 
the king, and denouncing his sins before all the people ; and, 
after so long a famine, he had now been praying tor rain, and 
already the iieavy thunder announced rescue to a starving nation. 
But in all these honors was he proud ? Was lie disposed to refuse 
his lawful king the proper homage of a subject ? He would let 
all Israel see how he honored the ruler of his people, and how 
far he was from vain-glory amid such triumphs. Gathering his 
robes about him, therefore, and mixing with those who ran 
before the king, he did nothing out of the way, nothing for effect, 
nothing in the least supernatural ; but testitied, in the happiest 
manner, not merely his own humility, but that even a wicked 
king had ceremonial claims, which a good subject should not 
deny. 

divided into seventy sects, in llie time of Artaxerxes. The truth is, man 
will have diversity' of opinions, to tlie extent that opinion is free. Despotism 
alone makes unity in such matters 



256 MADRAS. 

My stay in Madras extended irom January 26 to March 17th, 
1837, hicluding journeys mto the interior. The weather, during 
this period, was tridy deiiglitful. Listead of remarks, resuhing 
from my own experience, I transcribe a table, sliowing the highest 
and lowest state of tlie tliermometer, and tlie mean temperature, 
for every month in the year : — 

Januaiy. Max. 86. Min. 65. Mean height 75.5. 

February... " 87. " 66. « 77.8. 

March « 90. « 69. « 80.7. 

April " 94. " 75. « 83.7. 

May " 99. « 78. « 86. 

•June " 98. « 79. « 88.4. 

July « 95. « 73. « 8.5. 

August « 93. " 72. « 84.6. 

September. « 92. " 72. « 83. 

October.... " 91. « 70. « 82, 

November.. « 87. " 67. « 78. 

December.. « 84. « 65. « 76. 

The state of religious feeling in Madi-as, at this time at least, 
is little better than in Calcutta. The concert of prayer, which is 
held, unitedly, at different churclies in rotation, was held, while I 
was there, at the Scotch kirk. One city minister only, was pres- 
ent, and but thirty-five other persons ; though tlie evening was de- 
lightful. The services were just tliose of public worsliip, so that 
it could not with propriety be called a prayer-meeting. But reli- 
gion seems to be exerting its blessed influence m the city more 
and more, and recently thei-e have been among the troops in the 
fort, some forty or fifty cases of conversion. 

I was happy to find several Sunday schools, though only that 
of the Wesleyans seems flourishing. 

This city is the seat of several missions, by various societies in 
England and America. There are Episcopal, Scotch, Inde- 
pendent, and Wesleyan churches, with excellent j)laces of wor- 
ship, where pastors are regularly settled, who conduct sei-vices in 
the English language. Beside the bishops and six Company's 
chaplains, there are fifleen missionaries, Episcoi)al, Scotch, Wes- 
leyan, and American, beside several who suj)port themselves, 
and are not connectid with any board. Of all the regular mis- 
sionaries, there are but three who ai'e devoted wholly to tlie na- 
tives. The rest preach in English, or take charge of schools, 
printing, agencies, &c. There are also in Madi-as fourteen 



Hir^DUSTAN. 257 

Catholic priests, and congregations of Armenians, Jews, &c. 
Some thousands of native youth are gathered into schools under 
missionaiy superintendence, and several printing establishments 
are owned by the missionary boards. The language of the re- 
gion is Tamul, and in this, there are printed the whole Old and 
New Testaments, and two hundred tracts, beside the Pilgrim's 
Progress, Ayah and her Lady, Swartz's Dialogues, &c. Many 
of these publications, however, need revision, and many are 
wanted on other subjects. 

As regards Christianity among the natives, Madras is behind 
Calcutta. I inquired of several ministers, and most of the mis- 
sionaries, but no one knew the state or number of native con- 
verts. The nominal Christians are f«w. As to real converts, 
one missionary thought there were but two or three in the whole 
city and suburbs ! Another thought there were not half a 
dozen, at the utmost. No one supposed there were more than 
that number. Some hundreds have been baptized, with their 
children ; and many have grown up who were baptized in infancy ; 
but the conduct of this body is not always honorable to the cause. 
Of the Catholics, there are some thousands; but they are distin- 
guished from the heathen, it is said, not by better morals or man- 
ners, but only by not smearing their bodies and faces with idola- 
trous marks. 

I had the pleasure of attending the anniversary meetings of the 
Wesleyan Mission, the Madras Kible Society, &c. They brought 
me into a pleasing acquaintance with many missionaries from 
distant stations, and thus enabled me to enlarge my stock of of- 
ficial memoranda- 

I was particularly pleased with the Wesleyan plan of having a 
second anniversary for the natives, in which the services and 
speeches were in Tamul. The body of the chajjcl, cleared of 
the settees, was well filled with natives, who sat, after their 
fjxshion, on the floor. They behaved with perfect decorum, and 
listened with attention. It certainly is a plan happily calculated 
to enlighten and improve the converts, while it instructs and in- 
Ibrms the heathen. 

A case has recently occurred, which has excited a great inter- 
est among the natives, far and near. Ai'umuga Tambiran, (liter- 
ally, the six-faced god,) a distinguished devotee, has been con- 
verted to Christianity, lie is now very old, having been for fifty 
years a pi'ominent pilgrim and teacher. Dressed in a yellow 
robe, the sacred beads round his neck, smeared with ashes 
and clay, and bearing the vai'ious insignia of his high station, he 
11* 



253 TELOOGOOS. 

made pilgrimages to many and distant places of distinguislied 
sanctity, and was every where received witli jjrofound venera- 
tion. Eleven otliers, who had begun this course with him, had 
died. Scarcely any man, far and near, stood so high as Arumu- 
ga. His vei7 appellation — Tambiran — struck awe to the bosom 
of every Hindu; for " Tanibirans rank higher than Brahtnins, 
and inferior only to the invisible gods." * His public baj)tism, 
last August, has created a strong sensation through the entire 
peninsula. Being a poet, he has written several pieces, which 
have been printed in large quantities, and are sought alter with 
great avidity ; this being the style of the sacred books. His 
case, however, is an additional evidence, that though the peo- 
ple are disposed to ask if anj^ of the great have believed on 
Christ, yet that such an event has little other visible efiect than 
transient wonder. 

At Cudapah, the London Missionary Society have another sta- 
tion, occupied by Rev. Mr. Howell, an Lido-Briton. He has bap- 
tized one hundred and fifty persons, (adults and cliildi'en,) and 
settled them on lands owned by the mission. The houses cost 
eight or ten rupees each. Each familj' is expected to pay its 
own taxes, and support itself He has three schools ; one for 
Christian children, and two for heathen. A few of the baptized, 
probably twentj', Mr. H. hopes, are really converted. The rules 
binding on nominal Christians, are, to attend worship every 
morning and evening at the school-house ; to attend public 
worshi{)on Sunday, and two evenings in the week; to settle their 
disputes before a committee of five brethren, and not go to law ; 
to send their children to school, &c. 

At Bellary, in the northern part of Mysore, a mission was be- 
gun, in 1810, by the London Missionary Society. Strictly, this is 
a Canarese mission ; but Rev. Mr. Reed has acquired an extensive 
knowledge of the Teloogoo language, and has translated and 
written in it to some extent. He occasionally labors personally 
among the Teloogoos, who form about a thu'd of the citizens. 

The whole Bible is translated into Teloogoo ; and the New 
Testament, Genesis, Exodus, Psalms, and Isaiah are printed. 
The remainder of the Old Testament will be printed at the Lon- 
don Missionary Society's press at Bellai-y, but how soon, is uncer- 
tain. Thirty ti'acts are printed ; but some of them are very poor. 
A large supply might be advantageously distributed ; but the Tract 
Society of Madras is feeble, even with considerable aid from the 
parent society in London. 

* Dr. Francis Buchanan. 



PALANKEEN TRAVELLING. 



259 



The language is confessedly difficult of acquisition, but lias 
many beauties, and bears a strong resemblance to the Suuscrit. 
Missionaries now have the aid of an excellent grannnar and 
dictionaiy, beside translations of Scripture and tracts. Two 
translations have been made of the New Testament, one by the 
Serampore missionaries, and the other by Mr. Pritchaid, of the 
London Missionary Society. 

The only mode of inland travelling, in India, is by palankeen ; 
and, in the hot season, at night only. Bungalows are built, by 
government, on some principal I'oads, where travellers may 
spend the day, and where a sei-vant is retained, who gets what 
you require to eat. They are, generally, comfortable brick 
houses, having several apartments, and furnished with chairs, 
tables, and sometimes bedsteads. 

Li this part of India, a "set of bearers" consists of twelve 
men ; ten to cany the palankeen, one cooley to carry the bag- 




I'alankeen Travelling. 



gage, and a musalche. Six bearers carry at a time, and four 
trot along to take their turns, and relieve the others, about every 
quarter of a mile. The cooley carries the baggage in tin boxes* 
made for the purpose, called banguy boxes, suspended from a 
I)ole on the shoulder. The musalche., or torch-bearer, has a hard 
roll of rags, four or five feet long, as thick as one's wrist, and oil 
in a copper goblet, with a very small mouth. When he trims 
his lamp, he has only to knock oflT the snuflt' against a tree, and 
pour on a little more oil — a ])rocess which reminds one con- 
stantly of the parable of the virgins. Every traveller is obliged 
to have his own palankeen, in which he takes his carpet-bag, 
and some books, etc., hanging on the outside his tea-kettle, hat- 
box, and goblet of drinking-water. Notwithstanding the loss 
of time incurred by changing hands so frequently, your speed 



260 HINDUSTAN. 

averages about four miles an hour; often more. In travelling 
post, as 1 did, fresli bearers are had every twelve or filteen miles. 
J}y starting when the sun gets low, and not stopping till eight 
or nine o'clock next moi-ning, you may go sixty or seventy miles 
of a night. On roads where no beaiers are posted, and where 
special expedition is not wanted, a single set of bearers is em- 
jiloyed, who go journeys of any length, and average thirty miles 
a day, travelling either in the day or night, as you prefer. 1 
cliose to travel by night, not only because the sun was oppres- 
sive, but because it prevented loss of time, and gave me the day 
to be with missionaries at the different stations. 

On two or three occasions, I was obliged to spend the day at 
bungalows, and greatly enjoyed the cool quietude of these 
resting-places. The solitude was delightful, and refreshing to 
my spirit, as well as advantageous in enabUng me to bi'ing up 
arrearages in memorandums. 

This mode of conveyance has indeed the advantage of a re- 
cumbent posture ; but the motion was to me excessively weari- 
some, and, with some bearers, even painful. I liked a palankeen 
in Calcutta veiy well, where the bearers are accomplished, and 
the distances sliort. But this hasty journey of live hundred 
miles wore me out, so that I could scarcely stand. The ex- 
pense with post-bearers is twenty-live cents per mile, which, 
though deal" for the traveller, is an extremely small sum to be 
divided among fourteen men, who have also to walk back again ; 
making their pay but about a cent per mile for each, for very se- 
vere labor. To take one set of bearers for a whole journey, costs 
less. 

Leaving Madras, February 13, 1837, 1 proceeded from foity to 
sixty miles each night. The road led through Villacherry, Ca- 
liabaucum, Trepaloor, Allatoor, Maubiliveram, Sadras, Alum- 
parva, Canjimere, Collacoopum, Pondicheriy, Cuddalore, Poon- 
diacoo[)um, Chillumbrum, Sheally, Myaveram, Trivellungaud, 
Combaconum, Paupanasuin, and numerous smaller towns ; and 
across the rivers Paular, or Palaur, Cunnabaur, Gaddelura, Pet- 
tanaur, Vellaur, Coleroon, Cavery, &lc. Several of these are 
mouths of the Cavery. 

The first stage kept us along the seaside, every surge laving 
the bearers' feet, and my old acquaintance. Ocean, the only ob- 
ject of my regard. The rest of the way is through a wild and 
poor country, though with many towns and villages. Imme- 
diately around Pondicherry, and all the country from thence 
to Tanjore, is a garden. From Tai^oi-e to Trichinopoly, is a 



PONDICUERRT CUDDALORE. 261 

desert, which extends, in a broad stripe, to Cape Comorin. The 
district of country through which this road carried me, forms the 
central ponion of the Carnatic, and comprehends the former 
dominions of the nabob of Arcot. It came under tJie British 
power in 1801. 

A few hours were devoted to a rapid survey of Pondicherry ; 
reputed to be much the handsomest town in India. No native 
huts disfigure the streets, as these are all placed separately ui 
the suburbs. There is but little business now done here, and 
but one foreign vessel lay in the roadstead. The Jesuits have a 
college and a church here, and the Capuchins a church. 3Iany 
of the natives have adopted the Catholic faith ; but it has done 
little for their improvement. The French are prohibited, by 
treaty, from keeping many troops, and the whole city looks silent 
and languishing. 

Cuddalore, on the Panaur, fifly-two miles from Pondicherry, 
is the first station on this route where there are English. It is 
one of the great stations where soldiers are placed, who, from 
having married native women, or other causes, choose to remain 
in the country after serving out their time, or becoming invalids. 
A few effective troops also are stationed here. The Episcopal 
chaplain. Rev. Mr. Hallowell, received me with great kindness, hi 
the absence of the missionary. The invalids and pensioners are 
obliged to attend worship, and with the gentry, form a large and 
attentive congregation. The missionary, Rev. Mr. Jones, devotes 
himself to the natives. This was a station of the Christian 
Knowledge Society so early as 1737, but has not been con- 
stantly occupied. Mr. Jones arrived in 1834, and is able to 
preach in the vernacular. He found Mr. Rosen's church, and 
ten schools, which 31 r. Hallowell had superintended for five years. 
He has baptized some adults, and many childi-en, and increased 
the number of schools. One of these is for girls. The whole 
now contain 540 children. Mr. Jones has two Tamul services 
on the Sabbath, and two in the week. The congregation con- 
sists chiefly of nominal Christians. They amount to more than 
three luuidi'ed, among whom are many of the native wives of 
European soldiers. 

Though I passed within an hour or two of Tranquebar, it 
seemed of no use to visit it, as there is now almost no visible 
effect of missionary labor there. Nor is there any missionary, 
the last one having accejited the office of chaplain to govern- 
ment. A few of the schools are continued by government ; but 



262 



HINDUSTAN. 



there are only tliree hundred nominal Christians, and the mission 
is entirely relinquished. Tlie causes of this total abrogation ofa 
long-estal)lished mission deserve investigation. Abundant ma- 
terials exist, as to the histoiy of the men and measures ; and the 
question is of great importance. It is the opinion of some of the 
best-informed persons in that region, that many of the missionaries 
have been unconverted men. If such be the fact, the wonder ceases. 
A more beautiful coimtry than that from Cuddalore to Tan- 
jore can hardly be imagined. The dense population and rich 
soil give their energies to each other, and produce a scene of 
surpassing loveHness. But the taxes, and other causes, keep 
down the laborers to a state below that of southern slaves. 
The labor of canying agriculture to perfection, under a cloud- 
less sky, wholly by artificial irrigation, is, of course, immense. 
The water is obtained, either from the river by small canals, or 
from tanks and wells by pecottas. 




^ \\\ V J) 

"BMiDlimnilHiicsDn ciEiinninifnnniiiivrirs 



The mechanism for the latter mode is simple and easy. A 
pole, like that to New Enghuid wells, is fixed on an upright 
beam, and worked by two men, one of whom walks a few stej)S 
backward and forward on the pole, and the other guides the 
bucket. The same plan is common in all parts of India. The 
water rushes through troughs into channels, Avhich lead to evei-y 
bed. Another man passes along the field or garden, and, after 



IRRIGATION — COMBACONUM. 263 

suffering a proper quantity of water to flow ui)on a bed, scrapes 
with his liaiid a little soil into that channel, and leads the water 
into another — passing thus from bed to bed, till tlie whole is 
watered. The sei-vices of a watering-pot would be wholly 
inadequate, in a climate so hot, and without rain. 

Such a practice is doubtless alluded to, Prov. xxi. 1, where it 
is said of God's easy control of human hearts, that "he turneth 
them as the rivers [rivulets] of water." 

As there is always power enough, in a tropical sun, to produce 
vegetation, moisture alone is necessaiy to constant cropping. 
Districts, therefore, furnished as this is, with tanks and rivers, 
present continually all the varieties of seasons iu Europe. The 
eye wanders over lai"ge fields, in some parts of wliich men are 
ploughing, in others planting, and in others harvesting, at the 
same time. Each field is divided, as in our own rice-growing 
districts, into small compartments, separated by a narrow mound 
of earth, about a foot high. On any one of these the water is 
turned at pleasure, while the rest are diy ; and eveiy stage of 
the process, and of the growth of the grain, is seen at once. 
Most of the lands are cropped twice a year ; sometimes with 
rice, but more frequently witli rice first, and then some other 
gi-ain or pulse. 

The scene is beautiful ; but squalid poverty and miserable 
mendicants constantly obtrude, and remind one of Pope's 
lines — 

" In vain kind seasons swell the teeming grain; 
Soft showers distil, and suns grow warm in vain : 
The swain, with tears, his frustrate labor yields. 
And, famished, dies amidst his ripened fields." 

At Com!)aconum I found a London missionary, Mr. Nimmo, 
successor to Mr. Crisp. The city contains forty thousand inhab- 
itants, and was the capital of the ancient Chola dynasty, from 
•which the whole coast of Coromandel (corruption of Cholmimn- 
del) received its name. It is distinguished among Hindus for 
its sanctity, and is one of idolatry's strongest holds in Southern 
India ; though missionaiy labors have here been carried forward 
by Protestants for more than seventy years. Great numbers of 
the inhabitants are of the Brahmm caste. The pagodas, gate- 
ways, and tanks are very fine. 

The chief cause of the celebrity of this seat of idolatry is the 
general belief that one of its great tanks is fdled, every twelfth 



26t HINDUSTAN. 

year, by the waters of the Ganges, which enter by a subter- 
ranean passage. Thousands of people, unable to go so far as 
Bengal, rush hither, from all parts of Southern India, at these 
favored times, and bring vast profit to the Brahmins. The 
efficacy of the water is deemed sufficient, at these times, to wash 
away, from all who bathe in it, all manner of siu and impurity, 
even though contracted in many former transmigrations. Pa- 
pists are numerous in this region, and add much to the difficul- 
ties of a missionaiy. 

The station has not been without fruit ; and some souls have 
evidently been born of God. The Danish missionaries at one 
time had a congregation of five hundred persons. But, among 
other causes, frequent intermissions of labor, by the death or 
removal of the missionaiy, have been veiy pernicious. Sir. 
Nimmo settled here in 1833, and has two hundred nominal 
Christians (that is, baptized persons) under his care, and a 
church of twelve members. Besides the clm})el in the city, he 
has three others in the vicinity, and employs five readers, mostly 
from Tanjore. He has twelve small schools, eight of which 
are maintained by friends on the spot. Only four of his teachers 
are Cliiistians. The Rev. Mr. Combs, from Taiijore, is about 
to settle in this city. 

At Tanjore, a hearty welcome awaited me to the house of the 
venerable Kohlhofi) the protege, friend, and fellow-laborer of 
Swartz. For more than fifty years he has been a missionary. 
I was charmed with his purity and sitn])licity of character, and 
enjoyed, during the three days spent under liis hospitable roof, 
not only a valuable opportunity of acquiring authentic knowledge 
of the history of missions in this region, but the deductions of 
his own long experience and observation, and many delightful 
facts respecting the private life of Swartz. 

The city is the residence of the rajah, who still reigns over the 
kingdom of Tanjore, paying three fifths of the revenues to the 
Company. He is son of Serfojee, the rajah who was brought up 
by Swartz, and who so sincerely loved that admirable man. 
His residence is within the fortress, which is reputed to be very 
strong, and which contains not only the palace, but a population 
of many thousands. 

The district of Tanjore was never actually occupied by Mahom- 
etans; therefore the Hindu structures remained uninjm-ed, and 
the religious revenues were not sequestrated. Thus it is, that in 
no part of India does the Brahminical faith show itself more 



TANJORE SWARTZ. 265 

imposingly. Almost every village has its brick pagoda, and 
loity gateway, covered with statues iu mortar. Brahmins hold 
all the power, ai'e the chief landholders, and fill almost every 
lucrative office. 

Swartz lived within the fort, where both his dwelling-house 
and church yet stand. The former is almost a ruin, but is used 
as a school-room. It consists merely of three small rooms, a 
little I'aised from the ground. Similar humility and moderation 
are disjjlayed in the house he afterwards built, within the yard of 
his church. The church is well built and handsome, and, having 
been lately repaired, at much expense, by the rajah, is likely to 
last for ages. It is of little service ; as but two or three Christian 
families live within the fort To these, however, a catechist 
preaches every Sabbath. Swartz's pulpit remains unaltered ; 
and in the wall, at the opposite side, is the marble tablet by Flax- 
man, representing his last moments, with the faithful Ccrik6 at 
his head, and the affectionate rajah and others by his side. O 
that this spacious church may again contain such audiences as 
listened to its blessed founder I 

Li visiting these interesting spots, we passed the rajah's palace, 
and saw his tigers, &c., kept for show. He had gone to a distant 
part of the fort, and we therefore witnessed his disi)Iays of roy- 
alty. The cavalcade was resting neai' the gate of the inner 
fortress, where he had entered. It consisted of a score of war 
elephants, caparisoned, a troop mounted 6n camels, and a small 
park of artillery. Men and beasts looked dirty and shabby, and 
all the pomp seemed poverty-struck. The dens of the wild 
beasts, originally elegant, and each having a fine tank of brick 
and mortar, where the animals might bathe at pleasure, were 
dilapidated, and the handsome iron balustrade nearly mouldered 
away. 

We passed on to the huge pagodas, extensive gardens, and 
paved yards, devoted to the national superstition. Here, too, 
idolatry has made one of its "high places." But, though all is 
grand and large, quietude and decay seem to be nearly in posses- 
sion. A few fat, supercilious Brahmins stalked along the deserted 
walks; but, except at certain seasons, \vo!shij)persare few. The 
traces of recent repair are few and partial. Other shrines in the 
city are more readily reached, and thither the crowds rejiair. 

The city itself seems flourishing. It is regularly built, and is 
said to contain a greater proportion of good houses than any 
other native city in Southern India. 

The first visit of a Christian teacher to this important city and 



266 HINDUSTAN. 

province, was tliat of Pressier, from Tranqucbar, in 1728 ; but 
he was not allowed to preach, except at his owTi residence, and 
remained bnt a short time. The next effort was made by Wie- 
denbrock, in 1753. lie accompanied an embassy of the govern- 
ment of Tranquebar to the rajah, and staid but twelve days. 
His diary, preserved in the mission libraiy, states that he had 
some little opportunity of declaring the system of salvation be- 
fore the assembled court, in reply to questions from the rajah. 

The first regular missionary efforts were made by Swartz and 
Klein, who began in 17G2 their labors at Trichinopoly, making 
occasional visits to Tanjore. Ten years afterward, Swartz re- 
moved hither, and the mission may be said to have been com- 
menced. The blessings which attended his efforts may be seen in 
liis memoir. O that his spirit had descended on all his succes- 
sors ! Two thousand persons embraced a profession of Chris- 
tianity under Swai-tz, many of whom, no doubt, were truly pious. 
But he allowed them to retain caste ; and the sad consequences of 
his so doing are felt to this day. Caste is not even yet wholly 
done away among the Christians, and its injurious effects aie 
many. 

Li the province, mostly collected in villages, there are now about 
four thousand Protestant Christians. Of course, among such a 
population, a missionary enjoys many of the advantages of a 
pastor in our own country. It secures, too, to those who may 
choose to abandon idolatry, the means of subsistence. The 
children are brought up in the knowledge of the true God ; and 
various other benefits accrue. Still, it is doubtful whether the 
evils do not overbalance tlie advantages. The baptizing of such 
as embrace Christianity, without becoming pious, and of receiv- 
mg to the Lord's supper all such as exhibit a due measure of 
outward rectitude, and possess a certain knowledge of the stand- 
ards of tlie church, confounds the church and the world in the 
sight of the heathen, keejis down the standard of piety, brings 
forth unconverted assistants, and makes church business a matter 
of civil police. This mode of conducting missions has now been 
long tried, and is practised by nearly all the missionaries in India, 
except those of the Uaptist persuasion, and those from Am.erica. 
It deserves the serious consideration of the friends at home. Out 
of the seven hundred and thirty-four communicants belonging to 
the Tanjore mission, a very small part are deemed pious; nor can 
many, even of the native assistants, lay claim to this character. 
Tyerman and Bennett affirm that " no vital religion is found in 
any of the preachers or native Christians." 



TANJORE TRICHINOPOLY. 267 

The present missionaries at Tanjore are Mr. KohlhofT, (Lu- 
theran,) and ]\lessrs. Calthorpe and lirotlierton, (Episcopal.) All 
are in connection witli the Christian Knowledge Society. The 
two latter are young, and have but just arrived. The mission, as 
a whole, wears an encouraging aspect. Three of the native 
preachers have received ordination ; two of whom are evidently 
converted men. One of these, Visavarnarden, (mentioned in Mr. 
Hough's reply to Abbe Dubois,) is still active and faithful, though 
nearly sixty. His laboi's have been particularly blessed. 

The schools, to which government contributes a hundred 
pagodas [more than three hundred dollars] jier month, are in ac- 
tive operation. This allowance, with the avails of Swartz's be- 
quests, nearly support the whole mission, with the exception of 
the salaries of Messrs. Brotherton and Calthorpe. The whole 
number of catechists and schoolmasters is seventy-eight. These 
come monthly to the mission-house, where their reports are re- 
ceived, and where they are catechized, and otherwise instructed. 
The whole number of scholars is about a thousand, of whom 
sixty are boarded in the mission compound. The houses for the 
missionaries, the schools, &c., are excellent and ample. These, 
with the church now used, are in a pleasant subui-b, composed, 
in a considerable measure, of the native Christians. 

Worship is maintained in the church, on Sundays, both in 
English and Tamul. No audience could behave more prop- 
erly than did the poor natives. Their knowledge of Christian- 
ity, however, is veiy small. It will probably be long before 
heathen churches will possess the measure of light, zeal, and de- 
votion, which are often seen in more favored lands. 

Behind the pulpit is the grave of Swartz, marked by a flat 
slab, with an inscription in English poetry, ascribed to the rajah, 
his friend. The lines ai'e affecting ; and the spot will ever be, 
to the Christian, hallowed ground. Fragrant and blessed will 
the memoiy of this holy man be, while earth stands. How 
glorious is the society of heaven becoming! How blessed it 
will be to meet there all the good who ever lived, and none 
but such ! 

There are about twelve thousand Romanists in the province, 
and in the city about four hundred. Their priests are generally 
of the Jesuit order, from Goa. Within a few years, a large party 
have come over to Protestantism. 

The country between Tanjore and Trichinopoly is almost a 
desert ; and I could not place a relay of bearers on the road. One 



2GS HINDUSTAN. 

set of men bore me the whole distance, tliirty-eight miles, 
between nine o'clock in the evening and sunrise next morning, 
without apparent fatigue. This is the customary arrangement. 

Trichinopoly, once the capital of a small kingdom, stands on 
the Cavery River, and is strongly fortified. It has a population 
of eighty thousand souls. None of that iinportance is now at- 
tached to this strong hold, which made it the theatre of such 
sanguinary conflicts, between the English and French, from 1751 
to 1755. The Company maintain now five or six full regiments 
of troops here ; but chiefly for the salubrity of the spot, and its 
ready intercourse with other points on the peninsula. 

The mission here was begun by Swartz, in 1762, and he 
labored in this field ten years. Since that period, it has not 
been constantly occupied, and previous to 1827 there had been 
no missionary here for ten years! The injury of these re])eated 
intermissions has been very great. Rev. Mr. Schreivogel now 
has charge, but the work moves on languidly. There are about 
five hundred nominal Christians; some of them the descendants 
of Swartz's followers ; but very few give evidence of piety. 
One of my informants thought there might be forty ; but another, 
who had better means of knowing, could not make out ten. 

The church and mansion-house of Swaitz are within the 
fort. The former is still used ; the latter is empty, and going to 
ruin. Here, as at Tanjore, it was sweet to linger in the rooms 
where he prayed, studied, and reposed; to handle his books; to 
look abroad on the objects on which his eye had rested ; and 
to console myself with the thought, that, though so vastly his 
inferior, and so unworthy of his society, 1 belong to that company 
of i-edeemed ones, among whom he is conspicuous. \Vliat a 
goodly fellowship! How will that company rejoice and shine, 
when the memory and the works of the wicked shall have 
perished forever! 

The last days of Heber were spent laboriously in this city; 
and here, "as a thief in the night," his hour came. Though his 
published "Travels in India" contain little or nothing to indicate 
piety, yet no one can follow in his steps, as I have done, without 
hearing enough to prove that he walked with God. I stood 
over his grave in the church, and surveyed the bath from whence 
his lifeless body was taken,* with feelings of sacred brotherhood. 

* He had gone into a large and deep cold bath, which he had before used ; 
and, remaining longer than common, his servant entered, and found him a 
corpse at the bottom. As he could swim, it was thought he hewl fallen in aa 
apoplexy. 



TRICHINOPOLY SERINGIIAM. 



269 



Up to the period of Bp. Ilebcr's visit, in 182G, all the missionary 
operations of this region were maintained by the British Society 
for promoting Christian Knowledge. Since that time, this so- 
ciety takes charge of all the schools ; and the Society for the Prop- 
agation of the Gospel, assnmes the support of the missionai'ies. 

Being within five miles of the famous pagoda at Seringham, I 
of course made an excursion thither. It is the most distinguished 
of the renowned seven; and the expectation of seeing it, induced 
me to omit any remarks on those of Combaconum and Chillum- 
brum. Hindu architecture is too vmiform to make numerous 
descriptions of it interesting or useful. 




Serinj^ham Gateway. 



This proud monument of Hindu art, wealth, and superstition, 
stands oiV an island, made by theCavery River dividing itself into 



270 HINDUSTAN. 

two branches, aud forming a junction again a few miles below. 
The sanctum sanctorum, of the numerous structures round, is 
scarcely larger than a native's hut ; but is higlily adorned, and 
in some parts gilded. It is enclosed witliin seven successive 
walls, a hundred and twenty yards apart ; the outer wall being 
four miles in circumference. These walls are of great strength? 
twenty-five feet high, and, beside common gateways, have twenty 
stupendous towers or pagodas over as many entrances. One of 
these is here delineated, and furnishes a fair sjjecimen not only of 
the twenty here, but of siujilai" structures throughout India. By 
comparing it with the Peguan pagoda, in the landscape of Tavoy^ 
that of Ava, on pag-e 118, and that of China, in a subsequent 
jiart of this volume, a cotnpetent idea may be had of the different 
Ibrms of the pagoda. A multitude of sacred edifices are scattered 
about, among which are some vast halls. The flat roof of one 
of these is supported by a thousand slender j)illars of carved 
granite. The pavements, stairs, and lower parts of the buildings 
generally, are of red and gray granite, and sienite. The rough 
slabs had evidently been split, in the manner now practised in 
New England. I was surprised to find that what is thought 
among us to be a modern invention, had been practised here 
for ages. 

Griffins and tigers, gods and men, tolerably sculptured, 
adorned various pai-ts ; and the trumpery of dis})lay days, with 
the cars on which the idols are drawn forth, stood in the by- 
places. We saw no one j)erforming any kind of worship. 

The intei-vals between the walls are occu]))ed by streets of 
well-built houses, and present the common aspect of a busy town. 
The population is about eight thousand. Persons of all grades and 
occupations reside here, and carjy on their business. A very 
large proportion are Brahmins. The other inhabitants seemed 
chiefly to subsist by little shops, in which are sold the various 
articles connected with the idolatiy of the place. They made 
no objection to selluig me unconsecrated idols, and whatever 
else I chose. 

A singular aspect is given to the place, by scores if not 
hundi'eds of huge monkeys, which are seen at every glance. 
They are held sacred toHunimaun,the divine ape, who conquered 
Ceylon for Rama. Of course, they are not only unmolested, but 
well fed ; and multiply without restriction. They looked on us 
from every wall, and frolicked on the trees, the images, aud cai^ved 
sides of the towers, often coming within a yard of us, without 
the semblance of fear. They are by no means jjeculiar to tliis 



SLAVERY IN THE CARNATIC. 271 

temple, but abound in most Hindu sacred places, and for the 
same reason. 

Pilgrims from all parts of India resort to this place for ab- 
solution from their sins ; and as none come without an offering, 
the lirahmins live in voluptuous ease. The establishment re- 
ceives, also, from the Company, an annual stipend, stated by 
Hamilton to be ]5,G00 pagodas, ($27,300.) Still, their rapacity 
is insatiate. A half dozen of them, pretending to act as guides, 
followed us eveiy where, begging with insolent pertinacity. 
With idolaters, as with Papists, clerical mendicity is regarded 
as a virtue, rather than a fiiult. 

The number of slaves in the Carnatic, 3Iysore, and Malabar, is 
said to be greater than in most other parts of India; and embraces 
nearly the whole of tlje Punchnm Eundam caste. The whole 
number in British India has never been ascertained, but is sup- 
})Osed, by the best informed persons I was able to consult, to be, 
on an average, at least one in eight, that is, about ten millions. 
Many consider them twice as numerous. The number is kept 
up not only by propagation, but the sale of children by their 
parents. Manujnissions, however, are frequent among the opu- 
lent in the northern provinces. Forbes says,* " I believe most 
of the tribes of Pooleahs and Pariars m Malabar, are considered 
as slaves. The number of poor people who come down to An- 
jengo, and the other seaports, from the inland countries, during 
a famine, either to sell themselves, or dispose of their children 
as slaves, is astonishing. During the rainy season, even when 
there is no uncommon scarcity, many are weekly brought down 
from the mountains, to be sold on the coasts. They do not ap- 
pear to think it so great a hardship as we imagine." 

It is strange that the British public should be so slow to open 
their eyes to this great subject. For twenty years, appeals and 
pamphlets have frequently appeared. In 1828, a volume of 1000 
pages of parliamentaiy documents, on East India slavery, was 
printed ; and within four or five years, some strenuous efforts 
have been made to call attention to this enormity ; but as yet, 
nothuig has been done to purpose. Surely the zeal which has 
achieved the freedom of a few hundred thousand slaves in the 
West Indies, will now be exerted in behalf of tiventy-fwe times 
the number in the East. 

* Oriental Memoirs. 



272 nilNDUSTAN. 

The countenaiice and support given by government to the 
prevailing Ibrjns of religion, is a weiglitj' subject, and calls for 
the solemn consideration of British Christians. I cannot but 
sympathize deeply with the missionaries, in the trials and ob- 
structions they meet on this account. They have little doubt 
but that the pernicious influence of the Brahmins would wither, 
and their system lose its power, if government did not render 
its aid, both by open countenance and direct taxation. 

An extreme fear of creating political disturbances, if efforts 
were made to convert the natives to Christianity, seems to have 
possessed the Company's government from the beginning. Hence 
the refusal, at fust, to allow missionary effort. Hence Chamber- 
lain, though in the sei-vice of her royal highness, the Begaum, 
was deemed pestilent for preaching at a fair, and lier majesty 
was reluctantly obliged to send him down to Calcutta. Happily, 
the little band that found a refuge under the Danish flag at Ser- 
ampore, lived to prove, practically, that such fears are groundless. 

But, though the government now permits and protects mis- 
sionaiy effort, it has not wholly lost its early fears ; and these, 
together with a desire to be strictly neutral, lead to measures 
directly favorable to idolatry. It levies and collects the revenues 
for supporting brahmins and temples, as the former rulers did ; 
thus virtually making idolatry and Mahometanisju the established 
religions of the country ! The aiuiual allowance from the public 
treasury, for the support of the temple of Juggernaut, is 56,000 
rupees, (about $26,000,) and many other temples iiave allowances 
equally liberal. C. Buffer, in his letter to the Court of Directors, 
on this subject, says, " Large pensions, in land and money, ai-e 
allowed by our government, in all jjarts of the country, for keep- 
ing up the religious institutions both of Hindus and Mahomet- 
ans." Lord Wni. Bentick, governor-general of India, under 
date of August, 1835, speaking of the tax laid on pilgrims, which 
yields the Company a handsome revenue, says, "As long as wc 
maintain, most properly, in my opinion, the different establish- 
ments belonging to the Mahometan and Hindu religions, we 
need not much scruple about the tax in question." 

in the district of Tinnevelly, an examination on this subject 
was made by Mr. T., who found 2783 temples, and 9799 petty 
kovils, of male and female deities, and some mferior religious 
stations ; making a total of 14,851 places of idolatrous worship. 
The total charge of these on the government amounts to 30,000 
pounds sterling, (about !5^145,000,) per annum ! 

Beside this regular supj)ort, there are numerous other modes, 



SUPPORT OF IDOLATRY BY GOVERNMENT. 273 

ill which the national systems are countenanced. Mr. Rlieuius 
has stated, that, in ]831, government contributed forty thousand 
rujjees tovvard the performance of a certain ceremony in the 
temple at Tinnevelly, and to repair the idol's car! At the prin- 
cipal festivals, guns are fired by national ships, and by the 
Company's troops, and the niilitaiy bands of music are loaned 
to grace the occasions. Thus Christian soldiers are compelled 
to do honor to the false prophet and to dumb idols! A letter of 
the Rev. William Fyvie, dated Surat, Sej)tember 1, 183G, pub- 
lished in an English periodical, mentions one of these cases, 
which are constantly occurring in ev ery part of India. It was 
the annual coco-nut day — a festival in which coco-nuts are thrown 
into the river as offerings. "This Hindu festival was ushered in 
by a salute of guns from the honorable Company's ship, lying in 
the river opposite to Surat. The castle guns fired a salute at 
the same time. About four P. M., after the brahmin had conse- 
crated the coco-nut with prayers, the European magistrate 
presented the offering to the river, amidst the poojas (worship) 
of the brahmins and other Hindus present. While this vain and 
idle ceremony was going forward, the ship, before alluded to, 
first moved down and then up the river, displaying her colors, 
and firing salutes. The British flag was waving on Surat Castle 
all the day, in honor of the festival. In this way our rulers and 
their agents directly and publicly countenance idolatry and su- 
perstition in this place. The new moon, excepting twice in the 
year, when the Mussulmans are mourning, is regularly saluted 
by five guns, to please the Mahometans. Two thousand rupees 
are annually given to the same people by government, to assist 
them in the celebration of their Eeds, (festivals.) When shall 
these practices be brought to a perpetual end .'* " 

Various idolatrous temples and gateways have been built 
or repaired by government. Vast sums have been spent on 
colleges and schools, for the inculcation of heathen and Mahom- 
etan doctrines and customs. By these same laws and customs, 
British judges and magistrates regulate their decisions, instead 
of the pure and equitable laws of their own land, and of the 
Christian Scriptures ! When the cars of certain gods are to be 
drawn in public procession, there has been, for some years 
back, in various places, a deficiency of people. In such cases, 
the officers of government send out magistrates, and constables, 
or peons, who, with whips and ratans, beat the wretched people, 
and force them to quit their work and drag at the ropes ! Mr. 
Pegg, formerly a Baptist missionary at Cuttack, has fully shown, 



274 HINDUSTAN. 

in a pamphlet, published in England in 1835, on the pilgrim tax 
system, that the temple of Juggernaut, of which we hear so 
much, is wholly supported by the British government ; and that a 
large premium is i)aid by the government to "pilgrim Imiiters," 
who pass throughout the land, enticing persons to make a pil- 
grimage to the idol, and receive twenty per cent, of the tax laid 
upon them ! In regard to these agents, "The Friend of India" 
very forcibly observes, "We have a body of idol missionaiies, 
far exceeding in number all the Christian missionaries, perhaps, 
in the world, going forth, from yeai- to year, to propagate delu- 
sion, and proclaim (what, perhaps, not one of them believes) 
the transcendent efficacy of beholding a log of wood ; and all 
this through a perversion of British humanity, aiid good faith, 
paid from year to year, by the officers of a Christian and a British 
government." 

Until lately, the appointment of native Christians to any office, 
however low, was wholly prohibited. That prohibition is now 
removed ; but, as the local officers are not bound to employ 
them, and the general feeling is against it, they are still excluded. 
How impressively does this say to the natives, that their rulers 
do not want them to become Christians ! I have heai'd several 
ofiicei-s declare, that a man who would change his religion, is 
not worthy of confidence ! After many inquiries, 1 could never 
find any one who knew of a Cliristian sepoy being ever raised 
above the ranks. 

Corporal j)unishment has been abolished in all the native 
regiments. Recently a native drummer committed an offence 
which formerly was punished with flogging. The question was 
started, whether this man, being a Christian, came under the 
new law. The decision was, that he was not a native, in the 
eye of the law; and he was made to undergo the lash! I take 
this fact from the Calcutta newspapers of the day. 

Public offices are closed entirely on various native festivals ; 
but on the Christian Sabbath, native officers and servants, and 
many Europeans, are employed as usual. I have been in no 
]>art of the Company's territories where public works, carried on 
by native laborers, are not continued on the Lord's day. 

By Mahometan and Hindu laws of inheritance, the son who 
changes his religion loses patrimonj'. British judges, therefore, 
deciding by these laws, are compelled to turn the convert from his 
home, a beggar. The very records of these courts aj-e inscribed to 
»S7iree, to Ganesha, and other false gods. Brahmins and others have 
been appointed and employed by government to make inter- 



SUPPORT OF IDOLATRY BY GOVERNMENT. 275 

cessions and invocations to pagan gods for rain, and for fair 
weather! It is so customary for Britisii officci's to subscribe to 
one Hindu and one Mahometan festival aimually, that some wlio 
recently decUned, from conscientious scruples, gave great offence 
to tlieir superiors, 

I speak in no spirit of bitterness in narrating these facts. Tlie 
government has, in the main, good intentions, I liave no doubt ; 
and, next to the profit of the Company, and the i)reservation of 
these countries to Britain, desires the well-being of the peoi)le. 

Two incidents have just occurred, which will be likely to at- 
tract attention. Mr. Casamajor, a distinguished civilian, lias re- 
signed his appointment, rather than collect revenues for the 
support of idolatiy. Of course, those who hold similar appoint- 
ments are anxious to quiet their consciences and sustain their 
reputation ; and a thousand arguments are brought forward 
against Mr. Casamajor's course. The present commander-in- 
chief on the 3Iadras presidency, principled against countenan- 
cing idolatry, yet not able to forbid the attendance of troops on 
festive occasions, which is a government regulation, issued a 
circular, forbidding the music to accompany them. This order 
has created him much trouble. Sir F. Adam, tlie governor, re- 
peatedly and positively required him to issue a countermanding 
order. This Sir P. IMaitland would not do, choosing rather that 
the governor in council, who has the power, should himself 
countermand the order. After some days of sharp contest, the 
governor's time to embark for England arrived ; and nothing 
was done. 

Facts on the subject have for many years been constantly laid 
before parliament, and the court of directors of the East India 
Company and the British public been widely appealed to l)y 
powerful pens. We may therefore cherish the hopes expressed 
by the editor of the Bombay Oriental Spectator.* 

" We trust that the time is now at hand when om* rulers will 
cease to be the bankers and factors of the idols and their pro- 
totypes, the abortions of those who became ' vain in their 
imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened;' when 
they will no longer grace heathen and Mahometan revelries by 
attendance, and participation in their unholy rites and ceremonies, 
nor rend the heavens and provoke the thunders of Omnipotence 
by firing salutes in their honor ; when they wiil suffer no doc- 
ument dedicated to 'the lord of devils,' f or profaning the name 

* VoL vii. No. 11. t Giuiesh. 



276 HINDUSTAN. 

of Jehovah,* to leave the public offices ; when they will cease to 
appeal to the 'vanities of the heathen' for rain and fruitful 
seasons ; when they will neither in respect ' make mention of 
the name of heathen gods, nor cause to swear by them,' f nor 
regulate the afiiiirs of their worship, nor settle the I'ank of their 
deluded votju-ies; and when they will no longer bewilder the 
minds of the ' twice-born ' youth by the exploded and absurd 
science of the Vedas and Puranas, taught in Sunscrit colleges, 
and qualify them tor dexterously poisoning the souls of the 
people throughout the length and breadth of the land, by com- 
positions prepared under the auspices of the great Destroyer. 
We hope, we say, that this, the most happy day which India has 
seen, and the prelude of one still more glorious, will s})eedily 
arrive ; and we invoke the blessing of God on all, in India and 
Britain, who, by remonstrance with man, and prayer to God, may 
seek to hasten it." 

My personal knowledge of Hindustan and the Hindus, though 
too limited to authorize me to pronounce new opinions, is abun- 
dantly sufficient to satisfy me of the truth of portraits drawn by 
others. I read much on both sides, and constantly marked 
whatever tended to show up the native character, and the ten- 
dency of Brahminism, and at every step was more and more 
confirmed in the opinion of Lord Teinmouth, whose personal 
knowledge of India was so extensive, that " the Gentoos are as 
degenerate, craftj', superstitious, litigious, and wretched a people, 
as any in the known world, and, especially, the connnon run 
of Brahmins;" and of Claudius Buchanan, who pronounced the 
Hindus to be "destitute of honesty, truth, and justice ;" and of 
Sir James Mcintosh, (quoting Sir Wm. Jones's opinion as his 
own,) who, among the evidences of their depravity, speaks of " the 
general prevalence of perjuiy, which is, perha])s, a more certain 
sign of the general dissolution of moral princi|)le, thau other 
daring and ferocious crimes, and much more horrible to the iuiag- 
ination." Of the same mind with these distinguished men, is 
Forbes, Author of the " Oriental Memoirs," ah'eady several 
times quoted. He says, "I cannot praise a religion which 
encoiu'ages thousands, perhaps millions, of idle vagabonds, 
who practise no virtue ; but, under the mask of piety, with a 
sort of stoical apathy and pharisaical zeal, undergo needless 
austerities and penances near their celebrated temples, or per- 

* Or Hii. t Josh, xxiii. 7. 



BRAHMINS AND BRAHMINISM. 277 

vade the provinces of Hindustan, singly, and in large bodies, to 
make depredation on the liard-earned property of tlie poor villa- 
gers, and violate the cliastity of their wives and daughters, under 
a cloak of sanctity and religious pertection." 

I will only add the very temperate remarks of the celebrated 
Wilkes.* " The Hindoo character, like all others, is of a mixed 
nature ; but it is composed of strange and contradictory ele- 
ments. The man wlio may be safely trusted for uniformly un- 
folding the whole truth to an European in whom he reposes 
confidence, may be expected to equivocate, and even to contra- 
dict eveiy word he has said, if called on to repeat it in the 
presence of a third person, whom he either fears or suspects ; 
and in one of these descriptions he usually includes all strangers. 
The same individual, who, from pique, and often without any 
intelligible motive, will perjure himself without shame or com- 
punction at a public trial, is faithful, kind, and i"es])ectable, in 
the intercourse of society." 

Were all such testimony rejected, as partial or vindictive, the 
fine rhapsodies on Hindu innocence and happiness would be 
exploded by the slightest inspection of their declared religion. 
The utter contrariety of the whole system to all mildness, purity, 
benevolence, and peace, may be seen on ojiening any of their 
sacred books. 

" The abode of the chandalas must be out of the town ; they 
must not have the use of entire vessels ; their sole wealth, must 
be dogs and asses; their clothes must be mantles of the de- 
ceased ; their dishes for food, broken pots ; their ornaments, 
rusty iron ; and continually must they roam from ])lace to place. 
Let food be given to them in potsherds, but not by the hands of 
the giver ; and let them not walk by night in cities or towns." 

In the code of Menu, it is declared, that if one of the Shoodra 
caste reads the Vedas, or listens to them, heated oil, wax, or tin, 
shall be poured into his ears, and the orifice stopped up. And, 
if a Shoodra gets by heart any of the Vedas, though he may not 
have seen the book, he shall be put to death. The same code 
affirms, that the only things in which Shoodras, and other low 
castes, need be instructed, is the superiority of brahmins; 
and that the great means of obtaining favor from the gods, is 
giving them charity. 

The following turgid and shocking account of the braljmins 
is quoted from their own Ramayana : — 

* History of Mysore. 



278 



HINDUSTAN. 



"Even he who cannot be slain by tlie ponderous arms of 
Indra, nor by those of Kali, nor by the terrible Chacki-a of V^isiinii, 
shall be destroyed if a brahmin curse iiim, as if he were con- 
sumed by fire." In other paits, brahminical potency (almost, 
it may be said, omnipotency) is stronj^ly enforced. 

" Let not a king, although in greatest distress for money, 
provoke brahmins to anger, by taking their property ; for, once 
em-aged, they could immediately, by sacrifices and imprecations, 
destroy him, with his troops, elephants, horses, and cars." 

" Who, without perishing, could provoke these holy men, by 
whose ancestors, under Brahma, the all-devouring fire was 
created ; the sea, with waters not drinkable ; and the moon, with 
its wane and increase.'" "What prince could gain wealth by 
oppressing those, who, if angry, could frame other worlds, and 
legions of worlds — could give being to new gods and mor- 
tals ? When a brahmin springs to light> 
he is born above the world ; the chief 
of all creatures ; assigned to guard the 
treasury of duties, religious and civil." 

" He who, through ignorance of the law* 
slieds blood from tlie body of a brahmin, not 
engaged in battle, as many particles of 
dust as the blood shall roll up fiom the 
ground, so many years shall the shedder 
of that blood be mangled by other animals, 
in his next birth ; or so many thousand 
years shall the shedder of that blood be 
tormented in hell." 

The accompanying picture of a brah- 
min shows the murks of clay, &c., on his 
forehead and breast, as described page 255. 
In his hand he holds a native book. 




All the writers I have been able to consult, and most of 
my friends in various parts of Hindustan, declare India to be in a 
state of progressive poverty and depression. The following ob- 
servation of Hamilton imbodies the general idea. After stating 
many facts, and adducing public records to prove his assertion, 
and remarking that the nature of the connection which binds 
the country to Britain will sufiiciently account for this ten- 
dency to deterioration, without resorting to local mismanagement, 
he says, — "All the offices of emolument, civil and military, and 
the highest lines of commerce, are in the hands of strangers. 



POVERTY OF THE COUNTRY. 279 

who, after a temporary residence, dei)art, witli tlie cai>it;il they 
have accumulated. Under native rulers, even the extortions of 
rapacity, and the drains of tril)ute, n;turned into circulation, and 
j)romoted, in some form, territorial industry. Under its present 
constitution, the remittance, or ratlier tribute to Britain, car- 
ries off every jear a large share of the produce, for which noth- 
ing is returned." * 

It may be interesting to some, and seems necessary in order 
to give a general idea of Britisli operations in India, to state the 
salaries of a few of the govei-nment officers. From these the 
general scale of salaries may be deduced. 

Rupees per annum. 

The Governor-General receives 250.000 

" Members of Council (each) 100.000 

" Judge of Native Supreme Court 50.000 

" Members of head Board of Revenue 50.000 

" Secretaries to Government of India (each) 50.000 

« Salt Agents from 50.000 to 56.000 

" Commissioner of Revenue 36.000 

" Secretaries to Government of Bengal (each) 36.000 

« Judge of a Zillah or City 30.000 

WhUe such salaries are paid to the civil seiTants of the Com- 
pany, they are by no means niggardly to their militaiy officers ; 
and when it is recollected that they maintain constantly a stand- 
ing army of 200,000 men ; that tlie military pensions are already 
enormous; that the recruiting and bringing to Jndia of each 
British soldier costs the Company, on an average, five hundred 
dollars ; that all the clothing and equipments of the army, and 
most of the luxuries of the officers and gentry, are manufactured 
in England, and that every expense of the Company, to say 
nothing of profits, must be di-awn from the natives, — we can 
scajfcely wonder that the countiy should be gradually sinking 
into desperate poverty. Tennent, author of " Thoughts on 
British Influence in Lidia," estimates the annual savuigs of the 
Company's servants, sent home to England, at ten millions 
of dollars. 

From time immemorial, the land has constituted the chief 
source of revenue in India ; and for j)lain and obvious reasons. 
The habits of the great body of the people ai-e simple and uni- 

* Walter Hamilton's Gazetteer of ludia. 



280 HINDUSTAN. 

form ; their diet is spare, and confined generally to a few articles 
of the first necessity ; their clothing is scanty and mean ; their 
habitations poor and unfurnished ; what we term luxuries, are 
confined to the opulent few. In all this the keen eye of the 
financier sees nothing to touch ; and he is compelled to have 
recourse to the exj)edient of taxing produce in the aggregate. 

The government share of rice crops is, on an average, about 
fifty per cent. ! But the mode of collection causes the cultivator 
to pay about three fourths of his crop. The public treasury is 
replenished by monopolies ; duties on exports and imports, for 
the most part heavy ; licenses for the sale of arrack and toddy ; 
stamps; fees on judicial proceedings; &c. The entire revenue 
of the Company is probably about a hundred millions of dollars. 

But the taxes on India are nothing compared with the oppres- 
sions and miseries inflicted by her religion. No statistics can 
measure these — no eloquence describe them. They must be 
seen, to be understood. In vain poets describe her citron 
breezes and palmy woods, her consecrated rivers, balsamic 
gums, fragrant spices, and trickling manna. One wide-spread 
shade rests on the scene. It is the kingdom of the god of this 
world — an empire where darkness reigns, and the shadow of 
death. At every glance, one is reininded of the prophet's forci- 
ble description of a ])eople who have forsaken God — " They 
hunt every man his brother with a net ; that they may do evil with 
both hands, earnestly ; the prince asketh, and the judge asketh a 
reward ; and the gi'cat man uttereth his miscliievous desu'e ; so 
they wrap it up. The best of them is as a brier; the most 
upright is sharper than a thorn hedge." Micah vii. 3, 4. 

The following are the modern or living languages of Hindus- 
tan: — Hindustanee, Bengalese, Cashmerian, Dogura, Ooch, Sin- 
dy, Cutch, Gujeratty, Concan, Pniijaub, Bicanere, Marwar, 
Jeypore, Odeypore, Harowty, Malwa, Bruj, Bundlecund, Mah- 
ratta, Magadha, Koshala, Maithila, Nepaul, Orissa, Teloogoo, 
Carnata, and Tamul. Except the Hindustanee, which is the 
universal language of intercourse, all these are local. 



281 



CHAPTER UL 

Voyage to Sing^apore — Coasters — Prices of Passage in India — Straits of 
fllalacca — Harbor and Town of Singapore — Climate — Produciious — 
Commerce — Islamism — Population — Moral Ciiaracter of Population^ 
Orang Louts — Ciiinese W adding — Missionary Operations — 31alacca 
— History of the Settlement — Extent — Population — Progress of 
Christianity — Anglo-Chinese College — Common Schools — Malay 
Peninsula — Origin of Malay Race — Divisions — Keda • 



March 18th, 1837. Again at sea. The lapse of ten days, 
since Mr. Day's arrival, enabled me to arrange with him various 
plans of action, and to feel, on leaving Madras, that my work 
tliere was done. I had already procured him a house, and some 
fiu'nilure, in the midst of Teloogoo people, and near to the resi- 
dence of George Vansomerin, Esq., than whom he could not 
have a warmer friend ; so that lie entered at once on house- 
keeping ; and his knowledge of the language will enable him at 
once to commence some parts of his work. Few are the missions 
blessed with so devoted a missionary, and few are the missiona- 
ries blessed with so devoted a wife. 

The "Thames," in which I this day embarked for Singapore, 
is one of the huge vessels, lately belongiug to the East India 
Company, and has now a cargo of seventeen hundred tons. 
The ample decks, the cleanliness, the little motion given by the 
sea, the size of my cabin, the excellent table, and all otlier cir- 
cumstances, form an agreeable contrast to the small coasters, in 
which all my voyages in these seas have, with one exception, 
been made. I lijel truly thankftil for this relief Continued in- 
convenience, and expostire for so tnany months, and especially 
my inland journey to Trichinopoly, had seriously impaired the 
small stock of health with which I left home, and made me 
doubtful of living to return. The truly paternal hos])italitie3 
of Mr. V. and family in Madras have set me up, and niy i)res- 
ent voyage is carrying on the improvement. As the rest of my 
tour will be performed in large vessels, I now set forward, not 
only with a fair prospect of finishing the work assigned me, but 
of regaining established health. 



282 INDIAN COASTERS. 

In taking my leave, as 1 hope, of "couiitiy vessels," as the 
coasters are called, I will just "show up " a fair average of their 
comforts, drawn tioin my experience in seven such voyages. By 
this plan, 1 shall not hurt the feelings of any of those captains 
whose eye may meet these pages, and at the same time avoid 
telling the same story "with variations" seven times over. 

You find, on getting aboard, a cabin five or six feet square, 
and are fortunate if in it you can stand erect, and still more so 
if it have a port-hole, or any ventilation, except through the 
scuttle, by which you enter. Here you eat with the captain, or 
perhaps ofi' of a stinking hen-coop on deck. There can be no 
awning on deck, because it would be in the way of the boom ; 
BO that you stay below, while the sun blazes on the plank over 
your head, and keeps tlie thermometer in the cabin about blood 
heat. Your mattress is laid on a locker at night, and rolled up 
in the day. Perhaps you may be able to swing it. The seams 
on deck, neglected and parched up, during a six months' dry 
season, let the salt water on you in rapid drops, when the decks 
are washed. If it be rainy season, your confinement below is 
scarcely less unpleasant. Trunks and small stores must occupy 
the margin of the cabin, or be stowed where you cannot come 
at them. If you attempt to write, three times a day you must 
huddle together your papers, that the trunk or table may be 
spread for meals ; or if you eat on deck, and so have uninter- 
rupted use of the table, the heat and motion make study diffi- 
cult. Your cooking is by no means scientific. The fowls, 
sometimes without the privilege of a coop, and lying on the 
deck tied by the legs, " get no better very fast." The smallness 
of the vessel makes her toss about most uncomfortably, when a 
larger vessel would be quite still ; so that, if you take any thing 
out of its place, it must be " chocked " again with care, or it will 
" fetch way." As to walking the deck, there is hardly room to 
turn; and if there be, you must have either the sun or dew upon 
you. But your worst time is at night. Several must sleep in 
the tiny cabin ; and the heavy, damp air, coming down the gang- 
way, gives you rheumatism, without producing ventilation. You 
perspire at eveiy pore, till nature is exhausted, and you sleep, 
from very inanity. 

There are other disagreeables, which, though worse , are hap- 
pily not quite so common. Some of the captains have no means 
of ascertaining latitude, and still fewer their longitude. Some- 
times there is no chart on board. The cables, anchors, and 
general mventory, are apt to be poor. Vessels in the habit of 



STRAIT OF MALACCA. 283 

carrj^ing rice, timber, stick-lac, &G., have al\va3^s mice, cockioaclies, 
centipedes, scorpions, and ants, in great abundance. In one of 
my voyages, I killed nearly thirty scorpions in the cabin, and in 
another, eight or ten centipedes. Thrice, on taking out of my 
trunk a clean shirt, 1 Ibund a centipede * in its folds. Large, 
vi^inged cockroaches infest all Lidian vessels ; but in some they 
creep about in every direction, day and night. I iiad one full 
specimen of this. Such crowds lighted upon the dinner-table, 
that we could hardly tell meat from potatoes. To drive them 
away and eat at the same time was impossible, for they would 
keep off of a dish no longer than , it was agitated. Tlie captain 
and I just dined patiently, each contenting himself with being 
able to keep them out of his o\\n plate. At night, they swarmed 
in thousands on the boards and on the bed, eating our fingers 
and toes to the quick. A hundred oranges, tied up in a bag, had 
not been on board thirty-six hours, before it was found that 
these cormorants had left notliing but the skin. It was a bag 
full of hollow globes ! Uncomfortable and confined as were the 
voyages up and down rivers, in Burman canoes, they were every 
way more pleasant than these little voyages at sea. 

These things ought not, perhaps, in strictness, to be called hard- 
ships, but they are inconveniences, which I found tended rapid- 
ly to make me old, and convince me that voyages of this sort 
cannot be a wise resort for invalid missionaries. I might in- 
deed have gone more comfortably, had I chartered for myself 
some proper crail, or waited for larger vessels ; but 1 could not 
think of so greatly increasing the expense, or jirolonging my 
absence. Those who pass only between great seaports, may 
generally, with some delay, obtain good vessels, and the usual 
marine comforts. 

The prices paid for passages in India are startling to an Amer- 
ican, accustomed to cheap locomotion. In general, they are two 
or three times dearer in proportion to distance, than those of our 
splendid New York and Liverpool packet-ships. Freights are 
charged at rates equally exorbitant. Even at these prices, the 
accommodations between unfrequented ports are generally much 
worse than our little coasting packets. 

The passage through the Strait of Malacca furnishes much 
to interest the lover of wild scenery. Lofty islands, covered 

* These are generally about two inches loiig, and the thickness of a pipe 
stem. The bile is never fatal^ but more venomous than our spiders. 



284 SINGAPORE. 

with forests perpetually verdant, are continually iu sight. Equa- 
torial temperature spreads its delightlul uniformity, and a 
smooth sea imparts feelings of safety. Heavy squalls, however, 
often occur from the west, which the people here call Sumatras. 
One is constantly reminded of being in the region of the 
Malays, by the recurrence of the name Pulo, which is their 
name for " island." 

The whole strait has long been notorious for piracy; and 
shocking instances of it, are even now ol'ten committed on small 
vessels. Malays are far from considering piracy dishonorable ; 
and many of their princes openly engage in it. Then- old ro- 
mances and traditions constantly refer to such cruises, and mvest 
them with all the glories of a crusade. According to their 
Mahometan notions, no doom is too bad for " infidel dogs," so 
that Christians and pagans are robbed, murdered, or enslaved, 
without compunction. Whatever else of the Koran their Sheiks 
may conceal, they take abundant pams to proclaim the decrees 
of merit for the foe of infidels. 

Singapore, where we arrived April 19, 1837, lies in latitude 
1" 17', longitude 103^ 51'. The harbor can scarcely be surpassed 
for extent, safety, and beauty. Lofty islands keep the water 
perpetually smooth, and seem to lock it in on every side. The 
town has not an imposing appearance from the anchorage, but 
the fine hill ui the rear, covered with vigorous grass, is a charm- 
ing object to one coming from other parts of India at the close 
of the warm season, and who has scarcely seen grass for six 
months. 

Numerous vessels, of various uncouth shajjes, lie at anchor ; 
while more numerous boats ply in every direction over the still 
surface. The aspect along shore is busy, and the few European 
houses, handsome and orientixl. The settlement was made here 
at the suggestion of Sir Stamford Raffles, in 1819. The next 
year, it was declared a free port, and in 1825 its sovereignty was 
confii-med to Britain by the Dutch government, which held 
claims upon it, and by the sidtan of Johore, within whose ter- 
ritory it is embraced. The latter had a pension of about 24,000 
Spanish dollars per annum settled upon him. Captain Alexander 
Hamilton says that, at his visit in 1703, the then sultan " made 
me a present of the Island of Sincapure ; but I told him it 
cou'd be of no use to a private person." A miserable village of 
fishermen and pirates was, at that time, the only remams of what 
was, some centuries before, a flourishing Malay city, engrossing 
the commerce of these seas. 



APPEARANCE OF THE TOWN CLIMATE. 28") 

The lapse of more than a month, in daily expectation of a vessel 
lor Siam, my next ])oint of destination, gave nie leisure to be- 
come acquainted with the place, and to learn, from the best 
sources, what is known of the tribes occupying the peninsula 
and adjacent archipelago. 

Singapore is divided from the southern point of the Malay 
peninsula by a strait, in some places not over a quarter of a mile 
wide, but formerly the highway of ships passing to and from the 
China seas. The island is of unequal breadth, twenty-seven miles 
long, and containing about two hundred and seventy-five square 
miles. A very considerable part has not yet been explored by 
the English, and is probably uninhabited. Some twenty or thirty 
other small islands adjacent, belong to Singapore, but they are 
mostly uninhabited. The town is on the south side of the island; 
and the direct track of vessels to and from the China seas, is 
within the roads of the harbor. It is surrounded by abrupt 
red sandstone hills, enclosing small, sterile, marshy valleys. The 
highest of these hills is computed to be three hundred and fifty 
feet high. On some of them are gentlemen's residences, but the 
rest are rugged and dreary. The plain on the southern side is a 
low sandy marsh, presenting those successive ridges, which indi- 
cate that the sea, at no very distant period, has dammed itself 
out. Though without rivers, the island is well watered, and has 
some beatable brooks and small nullas, extending a few miles 
mto the interior. One of these, navigable for a mile or two by 
large boats, passes through the heart of the town, and greatly 
contributes to the convenience of commerce. 

The town is more attractive than it seems to be from the har- 
bor, and some parts are really beautiful ; but Mai'tin, in his 
" British Colonies," has drawn upon imagination in making his 
picture. Instead of the houses being "generally of stone," with 
" superb granite stairs," neither one nor the other can be found 
in the city ! The best houses are of brick, and will not compare 
with many in Calcutta and Madras. 

Lying almost under the equator, the variation of seasons is 
scarcely perceptible. The heat is the same, night and day, all 
the year round ; seldom greater than eighty-nine degrees, or less 
than seventy-five. A fresh breeze is always felt, though there is 
no very regular monsoon. There is no rainy season, but a cloudy 
atmosphere prevails a good deal, and a fine shower falls almost 
every day in the year. Such causes give an energy to both 
animal and vegetable life, scarcely found in other latitudes. 
Plants of innumerable vai-ieties crowd the forest, rendering 



286 SINGAPORE. 

human entrance impossible ; and myriads of insects and rei)tiles 
people both land and water. Corals, madrepores, and mollusca, 
charm by their novelty, beauty, and simplicity, and excite admira- 
tion of Him who causes the earth to teem witli happy existence, 
and with evidences of infinite wisdom and goodness. One of 
these curious productions, a species of alcyonum, called "Nep- 
tujie's cup," is said to be found no where else. It is a beautiful, 
tough, hard, sponge-like goblet, capable often of holding from 
one to two busliels. 

A more delightful climate there is not probably on earth. 
Storms and hurricanes are rare, though showers occur almost 
daily. 

The following table is constructed from precise meteorological 
observations for the jeai" 1835 : — 

6 A. M. 3 P. M. 8 p. M. Fall of Rain. 

Januai*y 78 86 83 18 inches 8 tenths. 

February 79 85 82 1 « 5 " 

March 78 84 80 10 " 8 « 

April 80 84 82 3 " 2 " 

May 80 84 82 5 « « 

June 81 84 82 6 " 5 « 

July 80. .....87 82 4 " 6 « 

August 79 82 81| 6 « 9 « 

September.... 82 84 81 3 « 6 « 

October 80 83 82 10 « 8 « 

November.... 79 82 80 7 " 4 » 

December 77 80 79 20 « 7 « 

The reader will do well to examine this table closely, and 
mark how little is the variation ol" temperature, either between 
day and night or the different months. I have omitted the 
maxinnmi and minimum, and will only remark, the greatest cold 
known m the year, is about seventy-three degrees ; and the 
greatest heat eighty-eight! The total fall of rain in a year, 
averages about one liundred inches; which, though nmch greater 
than in most jjarts of the world, is but half that of Rangoon. 

Every species of tropical production would probably thrive 
liere ; but the English have occupied it too short a time to make 
fruits abundant. For mangoes, durians, and all the finer fruits, 
they depend on Rlalacca. Experiments are now in progress for 
raising the sugar-cane and nutmeg, on an extensive scale ; but 
tlie latter, at least, will requke eight or ten years, before the result 




PRODUCTS — COMMERCE. 287 

is decided, 1 visited some of the nutmeg plantations, and, as 

the tree is little known, give a j)icture of the fruit; 

but would refer the reader, for an account of 

the mode of culture, &c., to " Crawfurd's Indian 

Archipelago." The tree is of moderate size, and 

the fruit very like the peach. Outside is pulp, a 

third of an inch thick, then the mace, sjjread 

over a thin round shell, and inside that shell, the 

nutmeg. When ripe, the pulp o})ens, as in the cut. 

Almost the only products for export are gambl- 
er, sago, and agar-agar. Gambler, or catechu, (formerly called terra 
japonica, from its being supi)osed to be an earth, and coming 
from Japan,) is produced by boiling the leaves of a species of 
uncaria, and inspissating the decoction. It is used lor chewing, 
with betel-nut, over all the East ; and exi)orted largely to England, 
for tanning leather. Sago is brought in a crude state, resembling 
sour arrow-root, from many islands, and is here refined and 
granulated for the foreign market. There are eight or ten sago 
refineries at Singapore, some of which I visited. The price of 
the prepared article here, is generally al)Out two cents a pound. 
Most of the powder, or crude sago, is brought from Borneo, and 
the islands round Sumatra. It is the pith of a species of palm- 
tree. A good tree is said to yield about two thousand pounds. 
Agar-agar [fuciis saccharinus) is a sea-weed abundant along the 
shores of the islands, chiefly exported in a dry state to China, 
where it is converted into a rich jelly for the table, and sizing 
for cotton goods and pa])er. 

The commerce of Singapore consists in buying and selling 
the commodities of different parts of the world. The imports 
for consumption are very trifling, and, as has been stated, little is 
produced for exportation; but almost every article of Indian, 
Chinese, and European industry, passes through the hands of 
the merchants. Native vessels, from every part of the arcliipel- 
ago, find here a market, and obtain their supplies. A large 
pai't of these are manned by Bugis, who are the maritime men 
of the islands. They come in prows carrying from ten to one 
hundred tons, and carry from twenty to sixty men. They begin 
to arrive in September, and to depart in December. The whole 
number in a year, is about two hundred; having in them, men 
and women, at least twenty thousand persons. The name Biigis 
properly belongs to one tribe, on the Island of Celebes, but is 
generally applied to the traders from every part of Celebes, from 



288 SINGAPORE. 

the coasts of Borneo, and from Booton, Bali, Lombok, and 
Sumbavve. 

The commerce of the countries in and around the China Sea, 
would form an important and interesting theme for the pohtical 
economist. From the elegant and ' civiUzed Chinese to the 
wildest tribes which roam the intezior of the most unknown 
islands, all are animated and benefited by an honorable com- 
merce, which existed for ages before the European found his 
way into these seas. The savage Batta collects camphor ; the 
Daya and Harafoora gather diamonds and gold ; the Sulu dives 
for pearl ; the Malay explores his lonely shores for edible birds' 
nests, or gathers the nutmeg and the clove, or sweeps the shore 
for tripang and agar-agar; the Bugis acts both merchant and mai'- 
iiier, bearing these gatherings from port to port; the Sumatran 
furnishes pepper for all the world ; the more civilized Japanese 
smelts ores, and constructs articles of elegant utility ; the still 
more refined Chinese gives impulse to the whole by his luxury 
and his capital; while the Western world shares the precious 
commodities, and returns the thousand productions of more 
perfect sciences and arts. This vast, populous, and favored 
portion of the earth, is that which the ancients, even so late as 
the time of Constantine, regarded as untenable by man ; in- 
habited only by satyrs, centaurs, headless monsters, and human 
pygmies.* 

The extensive prevalence of Islamism among the islanders is 
another subject yet untouched by the historian, and well worthy 
of investigation. We are accustomed to ascribe the triumphs of 
the false prophet almost wholly to his arms. But here, the sword 
has not made way for his doctrine. At this very day, while 
Christianity waits to send forth her teachers, the Mussulman, 
without support and without delay, insinuates his faith, and 
idolaters turn in tribes. While in Singapore, I saw not less than 
two hundred of these islanders, then on their pilgrimage to 
Mecca. 

The present populjition of Singapore amounts to 30,000 ; of 
which there are only 7229 females. Of Europeans, there are 
105 males and 36 females ; Malays, 5122 males, 4510 females ; 
Chinese, 12,870 males, 879 females; Klings, 2246 males, 102 

* See Pliny and Slrabo ; Homer's Iliad, book iii. ; aiid a learned note 
in lloberlson's America, vol. i. 



POPULATION. 289 

females. The rest aie Bugis, Baliiiese, Bengalese, Negroes, 
Javanese, Arabs, &c. ; with a lew Imlo-Brittoiis, Armenians, iS:.c. 
I saw one or two of the Papua, or Negro race of the Indian 
islands. They resemble the African Negro izi every particular, 
but are smaller. To accoiuit for the existence of two races, so 
perfectly distinct, as the black and brown population of these 
islands, has not been successfully attempted. 

The growth of the j)lace has not been equal to the expecta- 
tions originally cherished by Sir Stamford Kaffles, its founder. 
Within the first two years of its settlement by the English, no 
less than two thousand eight hundred and eighty-nine vessels 
entered and cleared from the port; of which three hundred and 
eighty-three were owned and commanded by Europeans. Their 
united tonnage was 161,000 tons ! During the same })eriod, the 
value of merchandise, arrived and cleared in native crail, was 
about five millions of dollars, and in ships about tliree millions 
more, making about eight liiillions as the capital turned. It has 
not grown for some years at a similar rate, if at all ; and it is 
quite uncertain whether the place can become of much greater 
importance, till the various tribes in these seas become more 
civilized and numerous, and consume foreign products more 
largely. 

As in every other part of India, each class of community pre- 
serves the costume, manners, and religion of its ancestry. This 
has long ceased to look odd to me. It requires but a short resi- 
dence in the country to get accustomed to every sort of fashion in 
dress, and cast of countenance. 

The striking disproportion of females, who are but about one 
fourth of the population, is owing partly to the kws of China, 
which forbid the emigration of women, and partly to those cir- 
cumstances which make the male sex prepondei'ate in all new 
colonies, and purely commercial places. 

In going through one part of the town, during business hours, 
one feels himself to be in a Chinese city. Almost eveiy respect- 
ab'e native he sees is Chinese; almost every shop, ware-room, 
and trade, is carried on by the Chinese ; the hucksters, coolies, 
travelling cooks, and cries common in a great city, are Chinese. 
In fact, we may almost call Singapore itself a Chinese city ; in- 
asmuch as the bulk of the iidiabitants are Chinese, and nearly 
all the wealth and influence, next to the British, is in their hands. 
A large part of the Klings and Bengalese are ostlers, servants, 
washermen, &c., to Europeans ; and the Malays and Bugia 
occupy portions of the city by themselves. 
13 



29(J SIIVGAPORE. 

As to the moral character of this mixed population, it is diffi- 
cult to obtain accordant testimony. Some gentlemen in Singa- 
pore considered the morals of the people at large, quite equal to 
those of similar sized towns in Europe. Others regarded them 
as far worse. Certainly opium-smoking, gambling, and un- 
cleanness, are quite prevalent. 

Among the population of Singapore, is a very large number 
of those wretched Malays called Orang Lout, or " men of the 
water ; " and sometimes Orang Salat, or " men of the straits." 
Without any home on shore, they are born and die on miserable 
boats, scarcely large enough for a man to lie down in, at his 
ease. Roaming about for fish and coarse fruits, they pick up 
shells and coral for sale, and sometimes are sufficiently success- 
ful in fishing, to barter with landsmen for sago, clothes, or a 
little rice. They procure sago at about half a cent a pound, or 
less, so that the whole expenses of a common family of Orang 
Louts do not exceed two dollars a month. The agricultural 
Malays of the straits are a grade higher in civilization, but 
deeply degraded. They contrive to live by the soil, or by 
bringing in wood ; but scarcely one acquires the least skill in 
any sort of trade. The average height of Malay men is five feet, 
three and a half inches. 

A Chinese population of so many thousands, gave me many 
opportunities of observing the manners of this singular people. 
One of these was a wedding, to which I had the pleasure of 
being invited, through the kindofficesof Mr. Ballistier. our Amer- 
ican consul, to whom I was much indebted in other respects. 
As I had no hope of such an opportunity in China, I gladly 
availed myself of this. The family of the bride being wealthy, 
the room containing the family altar was decorated both with 
costliness and taste. The "/os" was delineated in a large 
pictm-e surrounded by ornamental paper-hangings. Huge wax 
candles, delicate tapers, and suspended lamps, of elegantly 
painted glass, shed round their formal light, though it was broad 
day. On the altar, or table, before the idol, were trays of silver 
and rich porcelain, filled with offerings of sweetmeats and flow- 
ers, while burning sandal- wood and agillocha, diffiised a pleasing 
fragrance. 

After the elders had performed their devotions, the bride came 
slowly in, supported by attendants, and went through tedious 
gestures, and genuflections before the idol, without raising her 
eyes from the ground, or speaking. Her robe was both gorgeous 



CHINESE WEDDING. 291 

and graceful, covering her, in loose folds, so completely that 
neither her feet nor hands could be seen. Beside the numerous 
ornaments and jewels, which bound up her profuse hair, she 
wore several heavy necklaces of sparkling jewels, apparently 
artificiah When she had finished, an elder placed on her head 
a thick veil, and she returned to her ajiartinent. We now waited 
for the bridegroom, who "tarried" a little, and the interval was 
enlivened by tea, sweetmeats, betel-nut, &c. Three bands of 
music, European, Malay, and Javanese, sent sounds of gladness 
through the halls and corridors ; the friends passed about with 
smiles and greetings ; the children, in their gay apparel, danced 
joyously, they knew not why; — all was natural and pleasing, 
but the slow and extravagant movements of a Javanese dancing- 
girl, who, in a corner of the porch, eai'ned her pay, little regarded. 
At length it was heralded, "the bridegroom cometh," and im- 
mediately many "went forth to meet him." He came with 
fi-iends and a priest, preceded by another band of music. His 
devotions before the Jos, were much sooner and more slightly 
done tlian those of the lady ; and he sat down with the priest, 
and a friend or two, in front of the altar, where had been placed 
chairs, covered for the occasion with loose drapery of embroi- 
dered velvet. Refreshments were handed, till a movement from 
within announced the approach of the bride ; and all eyes were 
turned to meet hei*. She advanced very slowly to the centre, 
veiled, as when she retired, and, after a few gestures by each 
towai-d the other, the happy pair sat down together, her face still 
invisible. Refreshments again entered, and each partook, but 
with evident agitation and constraint. Presently, she retired to 
her chamber, followed by the bridegroom ; and most of the guesis 
dispersed ; but we were permitted, with some particular friends, 
to enter with them. It was doubtless a handsome room in 
Chinese estimation, but its decorations would scaively please a 
Western eye. The bedstead resembled a latticed arbor ; and from 
the roof within was suspended a beautiful lamp of chased 
silver, burning with a feeble light. Standing in the middle of 
the room, they renewed their bowing, and passing from side to 
side, with a gravity and tediousness almost ludicrous, till he fin- 
ished the ceremony by approaching and lifting the veil from 
her head. We were told that till then he had never seen her ! 
She blushed, and sat without raising her eyes ; but, alas for the 
romance of the thing — she was ugly ! A leisurely repast fol- 
lowed, shared by themselves alone ; and probably forming tlie 
ratifying featui'e of the solemnity, as in Bm-mah. Fifty dishes or 



292 SINGAPORE. 

more were before them, a few of which they tasted with silver 
forks; but of com'se the occasion was too ethereal to be sub- 
stantiated by veritable eating and drinking. When they rose 
fi-om the table, the bridegi-oom, aided by his servant, removed 
liis outer robe, which had been worn as a dress of ceremony, and 
tlu-ew it on the bed, as if marking it for his own. Then, ad- 
vancmg respectfully to the bride, her attendant raised the folds 
of her dress, and he unclasped the cincture of the garment 
beneath. This act, so gentle, delicate, and significant, closed the 
ceremonial. He then returned to his own house till evening, 
and every guest retired — a capital system, allowing the bride 
some repose, after the tiying and tiresome ceremonies she had 
performed. Tliis was about four o'clock. Li the evening, a 
sumptuous entertainment was given to the friends of both par- 
ties ; after which the bridegroom remained, as a son at home. 

More refined deportment cannot be, than was exhibited by all 
parties on this occasion. The guests were not all at one table, 
nor even in one room ; but many tables were spread, each ac- 
commodating five or six persons, and all diverse in their viands. 
Servants were numerous, the silver and porcelain handsome, the 
deportment of the guests unexceptionable, and sobriety universal. 
Every thing testified the high claim of the Chinese to the char- 
acter of a civilized peojde. 

I readily accepted an invitation, a few evenings afterward, to 
an entei'tainment at the same house. Order, delicacy, abun- 
dance, and elegance, reigned throughout. Of course many of 
the dishes were new to me, but thej-e were many also, in exact 
English style. Among the novelties, I tried sharks' fins, birds' 
uests, fish-maws, and Biche-de-mer. I think an unprejudiced 
taste would pronounce them good ; but only that of a Chinese 
would consider them delicacies. 

From the first settlement of Singapore by the British, opera- 
tions for the moral and religious improvement of the natives 
have been carried on. Translations into Malay, and the printing 
and distribution of tracts and Scriptures, engrossed most of the 
time of early missionaries. In this department, a good deal has 
been done ; but, so far as can now be seen, with very little suc- 
cess. Great efibrts have been made also in the way of schools ; 
not only by the missionaries, but by the British residents, and 
the government. The latter has allowed, from the public treasu- 
ry, one hundred dollars per month. Several Chinese schools, 
and still more Malay ones, have been constantly maiatained. 



SCHOOLS — CATHOLICS. 293 

The principal authorities have, at times, exerted their influence 
to induce the people to send their children ; and even gone from 
house to house to procure scholars. A multitude of children 
have been in the schools, first and last ; and some hundreds have 
received more or less instruction. But it has been found un- 
possible to secm-e the attendance of scholars for more than a 
few months ; and almost none have learned to read. What is 
more lamentable, no case of conversion has occui-red among 
the pupils. 

No place in the East offers greater facilities for ti-act-distribu- 
tion, or a greater variety of nations and languages accessible ; 
and perhaps at no point has this species of labor been carried to 
greater extent Thousands and tens of thousands of tracts and 
]iortions of Scripture, have been given away. Not only have the 
Malay inhabitants been fully supplied, but thousands of Bugis, 
Javanese, Sumati-ans, Chinese, Mussulmans, Arabs, Kelingas, 
Balinese, &c. So early as 1830, the Singapore Clu'istian Union 
reported that " in Singapore and neighborhood, our friends have 
gone round, half a dozen times, passing from house to house, 
and scattering tracts abundantly." Ever since, it has been vigor- 
ously contuiued. 

Not a smgle Malay in Singapore has made even a nominal 
profession of Christianity ; nor are there any hopeful catechumens. 
For a long time past, no one competent in the language has 
resided here ; so that the only missionai-y efforts are the distribu- 
tion of tracts, and some unpromising schools. Indeed, this has 
been very much the case from«the beginning, as previous mis- 
sionaries were chiefly devoted to these labors and to authorship ; 
and very little has been done in the way of direct preaching. 
The history of this mission, now twenty years old, is an item of 
consequence, in oiu* reasoning upon the modes of missionary 
labor. 

The Catholics have two churches here — a French and a 
Portuguese ; with several priests. They not only take charge of 
those of their faith who reside here, but have brought over a 
number of Malays, Chinese, and others, and have full audiences 
on Sundays. Popish missionaries through India, so far as I 
could learn, ai-e men of good morals. They live far more hum- 
bly than any other missionaries, and mix much with their people. 
Their stipend, in all cases which came to my knowledge, is one 
hundred dollars per annum. Their converts are taught, from 
the first, to contribute to the stipport of religion, and their teach- 
ers, being unmarried, have few wants which these cannot supply. 



294 SINGAPORE. 

The Singapore Institution, founded by Sir Stamford Raffles, 
in 1823, has maintained a feeble existence, but is now hkeiy to 
be put on a footing of vigor and expansiveness. A new building, 
large and commodious, has been prepared for it, to which it will 
soon be removed, after which its course of study will be more 
collegiate, and its number of pupils increased. 

Singapore has, from the first, been a station of the London 
Missionary Society. It became a station of the American Board 
of Commissioners in 1834, and is now occupied by Messrs. 
Tracey, Dickinson, Hope, Travelli, and North, from that society, 
— the three former giving themselves to Chinese, and the others 
to Malay. Mr. N. is a practical printer, and has charge of a 
well-built, and amply-furnished pruiting-office. These missiona- 
ries have all been here so very short a time, that their chief oc- 
cupation has been the acquisition of language. They have, 
however, a Malay and a Chinese school, and superintend the 
labors of a large imntber of Chinese printers, who have been 
constantly employed on the revised Chinese New Testament, 
and various tracts, by Mr. Gutzlaff and others. 

The Church Missionary Society have recently made this a 
station for the Chinese, and the American Baptist Board are about 
to do the same. Rev. Mr. Squier, from the former society, has 
been here a few months. While China I'emauis inaccessible, 
missionaries for that coiuitry nnist prepare themselves in other 
places. Great commercial emporiums must be considered com- 
mon ground to all persuasions of Christians, in their operations 
tor the heathen ; and in several instances, such as Calcutta, Ban- 
kok, Smyrna, &c., the missionaries of various sects live together 
in harmony and good understanding. In such places, property is 
safe, the press free, workmen plenty, and exchanges easy, while 
uncertainties, and delays in procuring paper, and transmitting 
books, are avoided. 

A little country brig, of thirty or forty tons, carried me to 
Malacca in four days, and back to Singapore in six, allowing me 
a stay of one week. The steam-boat demanded a hundred dol- 
lars, while this vessel would take me for fifteen ; and I could not 
forbear, by the choosing the latter both ways, to save one hun- 
dred and seventy dollars. But sorrow to the man who goes 
often in country brigs ! We were crowded with Chinamen 
and Klings: and though the accommodations did very well, for 
their habits, they illy accorded with mine. Noise, stench, and 
heat, ruled by day, and confinement, dampness, and vermin, by 



MALACCA. 295 

tiiglit. My camp chair was the only seat; and, as there was no 
table, I ate from a hoard on my knees. But eating was a brief 
business ; for boiled rice, and dried fish-roes, all day and every 
day, furnished no temptation to gastronomic excess. There 
were indeed lots of stews for the Chinamen, to which I was 
quite welcome ; but, either their smell, or their looks, satisfied 
nie to keep to the salt fish-roes, for in them there could be 
"no mistake." 

Through the prompt and abundant hospitalities of the British 
resident and his lady, whose house, carriages, and attentions, were 
put at my fullest service, and the kind communicativeness of the 
missionaries, I was able, during the week, to see and hear all that 
concerned my official objects. 

The city of Malacca, formerly embraced within the kingdom 
of Johore, was taken possession of by Portugal in 1511 ; but her 
authority was never well established in the intei'ior, and the 
possession neither benefited her commerce nor enhanced her 
dignity. It was held by the Portuguese till 1641, when it was 
taken by the Dutch. It was, afler two j'ears, taken by the Eng- 
lish, in 1660 reverted again to the Dutch, and finally passed 
over to the English in 1825, and so remains. Why this location of 
the settlement was chosen, it is difficult to imagine, unless be- 
cause it was previously the chief town of the sovereignty of 
Johore. The harbor is very bad, being on the outside a mere 
roadstead, and all within so shallow, that ships cannot approach 
the town, nearer than three or four miles. At low water, the sands 
are bare, a mile from shore. The trifling river, on which the 
town stands, keeps open a narrow, beatable channel to' the to\vn, 
when the tide is out. The location is eminently salubrious ; but 
the commerce, which once made this place so conspicuous, has 
passed to Penang and Singapore. I found only a small cutter, 
like our own, lying at anchor, and was told there was seldom 
more at one time. 

The view of the tov«n»from the water, is picturesque and at- 
tractive. An old fort and church, in ruins, occupy the prominent 
elevation, while handsome houses, fronted by great trees, extend 
along the shore. The roads are finely Macadamized with a fer- 
ruginous clay, sofl when fu-st dug out, but very hard afler ex- 
posure to the air. 

The district of Malacca extends about forty miles along the 
coast, from Salengore to Moar, and inland to Rumbo, about 
thii-ty miles. The population within these limits amounts to 
twenty-two thousand, of which much the larger part reside in 



296 MALACCA. 

the town and suburbs. The Chinese form about one fourth of 
the whole ; the rest are Malays, Klings, Arabs, &c. About 
five hundred thousand pounds of tin, and the same quantity 
of pepper, are annually produced and exported ; beside some 
gold, preserved fruits, and smaller articles. Rice is not I'aised 
in sufficient quantity for consumption. 

The city continues, fallen as are its fortunes, to be head-quar- 
ters to the military force in the straits. The officers of six com- 
panies of native troops, and the usual civilians, make a pleasant 
circle of English society ; which brings with it, as usual, all the 
artisans and shops necessary for a missionary's convenience. 
Living is remarkably cheap ; and as to fruits, no place on earth, 
pei'haps, transcends it in number or excellence. A gentleman, 
not long ago, disposed to see how many varieties were in 
season at once, ordered his Kansuma to procure all that might 
be in the bazar ; and the result was a desert comprising seventy- 
two different fruits. Few places in India have such a variety 
of agreeable drives, and, perhaps, none a more salubrious and 
pleasant climate. It, however, is fast fading away. The stillness 
of death reigns tjirough the streets ; and even the laborious 
Chinese, seem here to catch the general spirit of quiescence. If 
the militarj' head-quarters should be removed to Singapore, as 
is not improbable, it will scai'cely hold a place among English 
settlements. 

The reproach which attaches to the European colonial system 
in India lies strongly on this city. For three centuries. Chris- 
tians have ruled here ; yet we look m vain for evidences of an 
amelioration in the general condition of the people. Their 
troops have maintained rule, and their tax-gatherers have scraped 
revenues, but our holy faith is not yet established ; nay, scarce- 
ly can even a nominal Christian be found among the Malay 
inhabitants. 

The class called Portuguese * amounts to two thousand souls, 
and are, for the most part, very ignorant and degraded. One 
tenth of these are professed Protestants, probably the fruit of 
intermarriages with the Dutch in former times. The want of 
any minister to bajitize, marry, visit, and instruct this class of 



* This cognomen is assumed by every man in India, black, brown, or red, 
native or mixed, who aims at superiority over the general mass, and can con- 
trive to wear a hat and trousers. As to any descent from Portuguese parents, 
it is, in thousands of cases, utterly out of the question. 



MISSIONARIES. 297 

persons, and the ignorance and poverty of most of them, has 
caused a continual faUing away, for a series of years, to the 
Romish church. They certainly deserve a larger share of at- 
tention than they seem to receive. A regular service is held for 
them on Sahbath afternoons, and schools are open for their chil- 
dren ; but a pastor of their own caste, and daily mmisterial ser- 
vices, are indispensably wanted. 

The late Sir Stamford Raffles, who took the deepest interest 
in the welfare of these regions, at that time under his control, 
remarks — " In our present settlement of Malacca, the impossibility 
of procuring servants for wages, compels almost every person to 
have recourse to slaves, and a considerable proportion of these 
are pagans, being chiefly Battas trom the centre of Sumatra, 
Balis from Bali, Dayaks from Borneo, besides natives of Timor, 
and the more easterly islands. Of all these that fall into the 
hands of the English, there is perhaps not a single one that 
becomes a Christian ; but the whole of them become Moslems, 
and despise and hate their masters as infidels ! Such is the 
woful effect of our supineness and indifference, which, if they 
should extend to the East, would certainly not tend to the prog- 
i-ess of general improvement among the Malays." 

I was glad to spend as much of my time as possible with Rev. 
Mr. Dyer, lately removed here from Penang. He is far advanced 
in the Chinese language, and preaches fluently, but has devoted 
most of his time, for some years, to the preparation of a font of 
Chmese metallic type. Wholly untaught, he has devised his 
own way, with great labor and patience, and has now, nearly 
completed, punches and matrices for a beautiful font, which is 
to embrace three thousand characters. Each punch costs about 
fifty cents. The size is three times larger than that of Marsh- 
man's Bible,* and will be useful chiefly in the text of commen- 
taries and sheet tracts. 

The mission to Malacca was commenced in 1815, by Milne, 
who immediately established a Chinese school, took charge 
of the Reformed Dutch church, and commenced the " Chinese 
Magazine." Mr. M. brought with him from Canton a Chinese 
teacher and printers ; and next year Leang Afa, the teacher, pro- 
fessed the Christian faith. He was then thirty-three years old, 
and has ever since maintained a holy and diligent career. I saw 
much of him at Singapore, and derived from him many valuable 

* This Bible is partly printed with metallic type, invented by Lawson, of 
Serampore, about twenty years ago, and used from that time successfully. 



293 MALACCA. 

facts. Ill 1817, Rlessrs. Medliurst and Slater arrived, and an 
J'^nglish periodical, called the " Lido-Chinese Gleaner," was es- 
tablished. Mr. Slater, after a year, went to devote himself to 
the Chinese in Batavia. In 1818, Messrs. Ince and Milton came, 
and assumed so much care of the schools, as to leave Milne 
more at liberty to pursue the ti'anslation of certain parts of 
Scripture, agreed on between him and Morrison. In 1818, Dr. 
Morrison founded the "Anglo-Chinese College;" giving fi'om 
his own pui'se about six thousand dollars, and obtaining large 
assistance from various quarters. In 1820, Messrs. Fleming and 
Huttman arrived, and, the year following, Mr. Humphreys ; and 
in the next year Collie was added, and Milne died. The sub- 
sequent history of the mission is known to the readers of mis- 
sionary magazines. 

During the above period, several other brethren settled in 
Malacca, to devote themselves to the ftlalays ; by whom large 
schools were established. At the pei'iod of Messrs. Tyerman 
and Bennett's visit, in 1826, the Chinese schools contained two 
hundi'ed and fifty boys, and the college twenty. No instance of 
the conversion of pupils had then occurred. 

Malacca is chiefly conspicuous in the missionary world for its 
college. It has ample buildings, and highly improved grounds, 
with about ten thousand dollars at interest. The location is 
within the city, on the margin of the sea ; and was granted it by 
government. There have presided over it, in succession, Milne, 
Humphreys, Collie, Kidd, Tomlin, and Evans. The last ai-rived 
in 1833. 

Like other " colleges " in the East, it is rather an elementary 
school. The pupils are taught from the alphabet upward, and 
retire from a full course, with a decent knowledge of English, 
and the common rudiments of science. About sixty or seventy 
thus educated have left the institution, who generally reside in 
the straits, employed as porters, runners, and under-clerks. I 
could not learn that any of them are more than nominal Chris- 
tians. Until lately, the school has for some years been very 
small ; but it is now increased to above seventy, of all ages, from 
six or seven years upward. Mr. Evans not only has large expe- 
rience in teaching, but is a skilful financier ; and the prospect of 
utility was never so great as at present. He has lately baptized 
several pupils, on their fully embracing the Christian system, 
some of whom he hopes are truly pious. The whole cost of an 
in-door student, including food, apparel, washing, &c., is four 
dollars per month. 



SCHOOLS — CONVERSIONS. ^99 

The system of common schools has been largely pursued by 
the London Missionary Society for twenty years. By the 
kindness of Mr. and Mi's. G., 1 was able to visit most of tliem. 
They form a curious variety — Cliinese, Malay, Tamul, Por- 
tuguese, and English ; some for boys, and some for girls ; and 
numbering in the whole not less than eight hundred pujnls. 
The resident English have not only liberally contributed to 
the expense, and shared the labor of management, but have 
been unceasing in their pains to gather and encourage schol- 
ars. Little benefit has resulted, in comparison to the means 
and the money employed. I regretted to see so much charity- 
money bestowed on Portuguese schools. The cause of benevo- 
lence is not concerned to perpetuate this language in the East ; 
and the spoken language is so corrupt that the pure Portuguese, 
learned at school, is almost useless. It has not been possible to 
obtain in this language a proper supply even of school-books ; much 
less will the pupils find valuable reading, even if they become 
able to understand it. Nearly three hundred pupils, the descend- 
ants of Chinese fathers, married to Malays, &c., study Chinese. 
No objection is made by these parents to the use of Christian 
school-books, nor to the pupils attending worship on the Sab- 
bath, and other religious services. 

A number of German brethren have recently settled at Ma- 
lacca to labor for the Malays, some of which are supported by 
individuals in England and elsewhere. The school formed by 
Mr. Tomlin, (and still principally supported by him,) for all sorts 
of boys to be taught in English, is still maintained, taught by one 
of these. Its plan is happy, and many have learned not only the 
English language, but the i-udiments of geography, grammar, 
arithmetic, &c. 

As to conversions to Christianity, Malacca has few instances; 
so Hew as to call for anxious inquii-y. As to the natives, it re- 
mains a moral wilderness. The schools, so vigorously and so 
long maintained, have not been prolific of spiritual good. Thou- 
sands who have attended them, are now heads of families, and 
ample time has elapsed, to allow the efforts to show mature 
results ; but no Malay Christian, that I could learn, is to be found 
in the place ! Even the Protestant, Portuguese, and Dutch in- 
habitants have diminished in number. 

The Malay race is classed by itself, in geographies, as the fifth 
great division of the human family ; but with what propriety I 
do not see. They have, certainly, no peculiarity of form or fea- 



300 ORIGIN OF THE MALAYS. 

ture, to entitle tliem to this distinction, and liistoiy, so fai- from 
furuisliing a claim, shows them to be a mixed race, of compara- 
tively recent origin. 

Tiie original countiy of the Malays is not kno\vn. The evi- 
dence is in favor of Sumatra. Both at Celebes and Sumatra, 
there are prevalent traditions, which assign the period of their 
origin to the middle of the twelfth century. About that time, a 
celebrated chief of Celebes went on an exploring and trading 
voyage to the westward, from whence he had occasionally seen 
natives. In the course of the expedition, he put into a river of 
Sumatra, where a large number of his followers absconded in a 
body, and, passing into the interior, settled the region of Men- 
an-ka-bo. Obtaining wives from the adjacent tribes, and pos- 
sessing more civilization, they gradually formed a new race, and 
rose to dominion. Most of them had been slaves, obtained from 
the Moluccas, and employed as wood-cutters and di'udges to the 
fleet. Hence they were called Malays, from Mala, to bring, and 
aya, wood. Sir Stamford Raffles affirms that, to this day, the 
peoj)le of Celebes look with great contempt on Malays ; and aie 
in the habit of repeating'the origin of the name. A general 
similarity between the Malays and the inhabitants of the Moluc- 
cas has been often remarked. And, what is more remarkable, 
the Malay language is spoken more purely in the Moluccas than 
on the Malay peninsula. 

If this origin of the Malays be true, it accounts for the simi- 
larity w hich has been remaiked between them and several of the 
tribes of the archipelago, such as the Eidahans and Dayas of 
Borneo ; the Sabanos, of Magiudano ; the Tagats and Pampan- 
goes, of the Manillas ; and the Biscayans, of the Philippines. 

On the arrival of the Arabs in Sumatra, the Moslem faith rap- 
idly supplanted paganism, and this by proselytism, not by force. 
Whether their language had before been reduced to writing, is 
not clear ; but it now was written in the Ai'abic characters, which 
continue to be used. Since the introduction of European influ- 
ence, the Roman alphabet is becoming prevalent, and the larger 
part of those who can read, do so in that cliai'acter. 

The new nation extended their conquests and colonies, till all 
Sumatra yielded them feudal homage. In the thirteenth century, 
they passed over to the peninsula, and took or built Malacca and 
Singapore. Gradually extending their dominions and colonies, 
the chief seat of their power was transferred to the new territory ; 
and the chiefs of Sumatra began to throw oft' their yoke. Pro- 
ceeding to acquire power and numbers, they at length not only 



MALAY PE.NINSULA. 301 

regained Sumatra, but conquered the Sunda. Philippine, and 
Molucca Islands, with many smaller groups, and are now found 
in all these regions, as well as Borneo, Luconia, and many 
other islands ; but without any centre of unity or power, without 
literature, freedom, or civilization. They liave sunk to insignifi- 
cance, and are apparently still sinking in national character. 

To elucidate and establish tlie filiation of the Malays, and 
many of their neighbor tribes, a full comparison of the languages 
of Farther Lidia, is greatly wanted. Leyden published a work 
on this suhjcct; but it is much too imperfect to be of any value. 
No one man can do more than contribute to the undertaking. 
The Rev. Mr. Brown, missionary at Sudiya, in Asam, is making 
exertions to obtain comparative vocabularies of as many of the 
Eastern languages as possible, and, we presume, will succeed in 
presenting a valuable contril)ution toward this desideratum. 

At what period the people of Menangkabo embraced the 
doctrines of the prophet, does not appear. The conversion of 
Malacca and Acheen took place in the thirteenth century ; but it 
is uncertain whether Menangkabo was converted previous to this 
date ; although the religion is said to have been preached at 
Sumatra, as early as the twelfth century. About A. D. 1160, a 
colony issued from the interior of Sumatra, and established 
themselves at Singapore, where a line of Hindu princes con- 
tinued to reign until 1'276. Whatever may, in more remote 
times, have been the nature of the intercourse between foreign 
nations and Menangkabo itself, we know that Singapore, during 
the period noticed, was an extensively maritime and conunercial 
state, and, at the time when the Portuguese settled at Malacca, 
embraced the largest portion of the conunerce between the Bay 
of Bengal, and the China Sea. 

The Malay peninsula (called by the natives Tanah Mulayu, 
"the land of the Malays") is the only great country wholly occu- 
pied by this race ; and is now divided into the kingdoms of Keda, 
Perak, and Salengore, in the west ; .Tohore, in the south ; Pahang, 
Tringano, Calantan, Patani,and Ligore, in the east. There are 
states in the interior less known ; viz. Rumbo, Johole, Jompole, 
Gominchi, Sungie-Oojong, Scrimenanti, Nanning Ulu, Calang, 
Jellye, Jellaboo, Segamet, Kemoung, &:.c. Some of these are 
divided into separate tribes ; as, for instance, Jellaboo consists 
of the tribes of Bodoanda, Tannah-Dottar, Muncal, and Battu- 
Balang. Scrimenanti embraces twelve tribes, though the popu- 
lation does not exceed ten thousand. Sungie-Oojong, Johole, 



302 MALAY PEMNSULA. 

Scrimenantl, and Rumbo, are called "Menangkabo states." The 
eutire population is very small ; some of the states numbering 
not more than two thousand souls. The whole peninsula, ex- 
cept Rumbo and Johore, is claimed by Siam; but many of 
the tribes are independent, and of others the subjection is but 
nominal. 

Scattered over the peninsula, without specific districts and 
locations, are several wild tribes, of whom almost nothing is 
known. East of Malacca are Udai, Sak-kye, and Rayet-Utan, 
and some negro tribes. These all go under the name of Oi-ang- 
Bcnua, or country people. These have each a language or dia- 
lect, but largely tinctured with Malay. Panther north, on the 
mountains, are negro tribes ; but evidently distinct Irom the 
African race. Of these tribes we hope soon to know more. 
They seem to be a distinct variety of the human race; differing 
both from the African, and the Papuan of New Guinea ; and in- 
ferior to both. The average height of the men is about four feet 
eight inches. These Malay negroes are thinly spread over a 
considerable district, in and in the rear of Malacca, and thence 
northward to Mcrgui; amounting in the whole to but few 
thousands. There are at least five tribes of them — the Joc-oons, 
Sa-mangs, Oo-dees, Sak-ais, and Ry-ots. All of them are much 
below the Malays, and some scarcely above the apes ; dwelling 
in trees and clefts of the mountain. A few have learned a little 
Malay, and occasionally venture among adjacent ti-ibes, to pur- 
chase tobacco and utensils ; but of letters they know nothing. 
Nor have any religious ol)servances been discovered among 
them. Their only weapon is the sumpit, a small hollow cane, 
about eight feet long, through which they blow short arrows, 
often poisoned at the tip. One of these, together with the quiver 
full of poisoned arrows, was presented to me by the British 
resident at Malacca. The sumpit is somewhat ornamented, 
but as a warlike weapon, is quite insignificant. 



303 



CHAPTER IV. 



Take leave of British India — European Manners — Voj'ag'e to Bankok 

— River Meinam — Paknam — Audience vvitii the Governor — Situa- 
tion of Bankok — Floating' Houses — General Appearance — Visit to 
the Pra Klang ; Servile Forms of Politeness — Chow Fah ; Singular 
Custom — Pra Nai Wai — Pra Aniramole — Present of an Elephant; 
Of a Cochin-Chinese Slave — Population of Bankok — Police of the City 

— Climate — Wats — Houses — Streets — Bridges — Somona Codom — 
History of Siam — Extent of the Empire — Population — Personal Ap- 
pearance of Siamese — Dress — Amusements — Military Force — Com- 
merce — Prices of Provision — Fruits — Currency — Character — Degree 
of Civilization — Slavery — Language — Establishment of the Mission ^ 
Mission Premises — Worship — Converts — Bankok a Station for the 
Chinese — Distribution of Scriptures — Need of more Laborers — Constitu- 
tion of a Church — Harmony of Sects — Roman Catholics. 

As I am now taking my leave of British Indian society, and 
have but slightly alluded to the mode ol living, it is incumbent on 
nie to say a few words on that point. The houses are large and 
airy, with whitewashed walls; the floors are matted; as little 
furniture as possible kept in any room ; and punkas depend 
from every ceiling. Every bed has its mus(|uito curtain of 
gauze, which is tied up during the day, and let down about sun 
set, before the insects get abroad. A taper, in a tmnbler of 
oil, burns all night in each room, by which, before day dawn, you 
dress negligently for the morning drive. At dawn,* a servant 
brings a cup of coffee, with a slice of dry toast, and announces 
that the horses are ready. An hour's ride brings you home 
again, and you shave, bathe, dress, read, &c., till breakfast, which 
is at ten o'clock. Here the family meet, and enjoy social inter- 
course during a leisurely repast, when they separate again, the 
gentlemen to their place of business, and the ladies to their 
domestic em])loyments. Calls of ceremony are made al)oul 
noon ; always, of course, in some close carriage, to avoid the sun. 
About one or two o'clock comes tiffin, or lunch, as we say, con- 
sisting of plantains and other fruits, with nice bread and butter, 

* It will be recollected that between the tropics the sun always rises not 
far from six o'clock. 



304 SIAM. 

and water, bottles of which have been cooled in tubs of moist 
saltpetre. 

Merchants, and gentlemen whose business is at a distance from 
their dwelling, do not come home to this meal, but have it 
brought to them. As to dinner, there is a diversity, the plainer 
sort taking it at five o'clock, and tlien rifling out ; the more 
fashionable riding first, and dining about half past seven or eigiit. 
But the sunset drive, all regard as indisjiensable. Indeed, Eu- 
ropean life in India seems a constJint struggle to keep oft" 
death. The standing and favorite dish, both at breakfast and 
dinner, is rice and curry ; the former boiled plain and dry, the 
latter consisting of prawns, fish, or fowl, stewed with abundant 
gravy, seasoned almost to burning heat, with ground chillies, 
ginger, and onions. Instead of water, the curry is mixed with 
the expressed juice of rasped coco-nuts. The dinner is gener- 
ally sumptuous, and the etiquette quite ceremonious, but far re- 
moved from stiffness and reserve. The waving punka overhead 
entu-ely prevents discomfort on account of the heat. So far as 
my experience goes, English society in India is far more in- 
telligent and agreeable than among the same grade in England ; 
perhaps because they are all travellers ; and travelling not only 
instructs and polishes, but tends strongly to promote liberal and 
enlarged feelings. After dinner, music and rational conversation 
fill up the evening, and all retire in good season. A cup of tea 
is generally handed round in the course of the evening; but 
spirituous liquors are sinking into disuse. 

Missionaries in Hmdustan live in a similar manner, oidy as 
much more jtlainly, as ministers in this country live more plain 
than their wealthy parishioners. The missionaries in Burmah 
have breakfast and dinner earlier, and omit tea. They do 
not keep horses, but take their morning and evening exercise 
on foot. They seldom get any other meat than fowl, or any 
other vegetables than rice, sweet potatoes, stewed cucumbers, 
and pumpkins. Plantains are often fried or roasted, and are 
very fine. At stations where there are English officers, there 
are always bakers and herdmen, who daily furnish excellent 
bread, and plenty of butter and milk. Their houses are described 
and represented on page 66. 

Leaving Singapore on the 24th of May, 1837, 1 arrived off the 
River of Siam, without accident, in eleven days. We came to 
anchor on the edge of the bar, amid numerous junks just 
leaving Siam ; but could scarcely discern the low shore, distant 
fifteen or sixteen miles. The river, called by the natives Mdnam^ 



RIVER MEINAM PAKJ<AM. 305 

or « mother of waters," is difficult to find, as the coast is a dead 
level, scarcely above low-water mark. The bar is ten or twelve 
miles broad, with but one and a half fathom's water at low tide, 
and extending many miles east and west. Vessels, therefore, can 
pass and repass with only jiart ot" their load. Even thus lightened, 
they generally ground once or twice ; but, the bottom being soft 
mud, except at its outer edge, they take no harm. The south- 
west monsoon, concentrating here as in the end of a funnel, 
raises a heavy sea, and makes it a wild place for vessels to remain, 
as they must for several weeks. Formerly, ships trading to the 
31einam River, anchored in the fine harbor of Ko-ci-chang Island, 
where wood and water are easily procured ; but the great distance 
renders it inconvenient. A small fleet, however, in possession 
of that cluster of islands could efiectually blockade Bankok, and 
cut off all its commerce. 

Taking a seat with the captain in the pinnace at dawn of day, 
on the 4th of June, we crossed the bar in about three hours, 
scarcely discerning the mouth of the river till we were in it. 
1 Fooked in vain along the beach for the nodo,*- said to be taller 
than the ostrich. The mouth of the river is about a mile and a 
lialf wide, and presents nothing but gloomy mangrove, the deadly 
silence of which was only broken by the occasional screams of 
iMiseen birds. The region is precisely similar to the Sunder- 
birnds of the Ganges. 

We had scarcely ascended a mile, before there came on one 
of those violent squalls of wind and rain, common here at this 
season. On every side had been seen boats ; but now, in a min- 
ute or two, they were either upset, or, being near the shore, had 
run aground for safety. Being in the mid-cliannel for the benefit 
of the tide, we were near being overturned. As we dashed on 
before it, using every effort to reduce sail, and expecting at least 
to lose the mast, we passed some of the natives swimming with 
perfect coolness beside their boats, and preparing to right them. 
It was difficult to feel that we must not stay to aid them ; but the 
ofier would have been matter of ridicule. 

Three miles above the mouth of the river, we reached the 
town of Paknam, where all foreigners are required to stop and 
i-eport themselves. The fiist impressions of Siamese towns 
were by no means exhilarating. Led through rain and mud, 
along narrow, filthy passages, called streets, and a stinking bazar, 
we reached the mean and dirty house of the governor of the 

* So called hy ihe Siamese, from noc, great, and to, a bird. 

13* 



306 SIAM. 

province. The hall of audience presented a burlesque on offi- 
cial pomp. It was a large room, open in front, with part of the 
floor raised, as usual, a few feet, destitute of carpet or matting. 
From the lofty ceiling hung an odd diversity of small chande- 
liers, apparently never used, and against the very tops of the 
pillars stood Dutch and Chinese mirrors, leaning forward, 
in which one sees himself drawn out into more shapes than 
Proteus ever knew. Chinese paper-hangings and pictures, 
neither new nor nice, covered most of the rest of the roof and 
walls; the whole grim with dust and smoke. His lordship, 
perfectly naked, except the cloth round his loins, sat on a mat, 
leaning on a triangular pillow, covered with morocco. The 
attendants crouched, as before the highest monarch, and we 
alone dared to assume any position by which the head should be 
more elevated than his. A multitude of questions was asked, 
respecting the ship's size, cargo, armament, crew, &c., and my 
name, office, countries 1 had seen, objects in coming to Siam, 
and intended length of stay; all which were carefully written 
down to be forwarded post haste to Bankok. 

Preferring exposure to the rain, in the open pinnace, to our 
catechetical tedium, we embarked as soon as released, and ar- 
rived at Bankok (distant about twenty-five miles) a little afler 
dark. At Paknam, and several places above, are forts on well 
selected points, and somewhat in European construction. Most 
of the way, the shores are uninhabited, and aj)pear to be in 
process of being redeemed from the sea, the high tide laying 
them under water. Almost the only growth, at first, is the attap, 
or dennee, called by Siamese chak, (Cocos-nypa,) and of which 
the best thatch is made ; and the mangrove, [Rhizophora,) in 
several varieties. This latter plant grows over all the East, on 
the boundary between salt and fresh water, and sometimes in 
the salt water itself; and is a principal agent in extending the 
deltas of great rivers. It grows down to low-water mark, its 
thick, strong roots resisting almost any wave. The fruit, club- 
shaped, and a foot long, bending down the branch to which 
it hangs, reaches the earth, vegetates, and forms an arcli. 
These arches, roots, branches, and strong stems, obstructing all 
currents, the quiet water deposits its sediment, and earth gains 
on ocean. 

The latter half of the way presents almost a continued suc- 
cession of houses, embowered in a dense growth of various 
palms, and other fruit-trees. Behind, as I afterward found, are 
rich and extensive paddy-fields. The river at the mouth is, per- 



BANKOK FLOATING HOUSES. 



307 



haps, two miles wide, but half way up lessens to one, and at 
IJaiikok to less than hall" a mile. 

Bankok is about twenty-five miles from the sea; lat. 13° 
58', long. 100° 34'. It covers a considerable island in the 
river, and extends along both shores for several miles, above and 
below. Its aspect difters from that of any other city, and but 
for its novelty, would be rather rei)ulsive. Little is seeu ou 
ascending the river, but a row of lloating houses, on each 




side, small and mean ; most of them open in front, and con- 
taining a little sliop. Tne goods are arranged on a succes- 
sion of shelves, like stairs, to the height of about three feet; 
and the shopman sits alongside on the floor, as seen in the 
picture. The liont of the centre part, or shop, opens with hinges 
at the top, and is propped up in the day-time with a bamboo, 
making a good awning. The sides and rear of the building are 
occupied by the family. The whole stands on a rafl; of large 
bamboos, which is renewed every two or three years. They are 
kept in place, not by anchors, but by large poles on each side, 
di'iven into the muddy bottom. 

The Chinese junks, which make annual voyages to Bankok, 
had not all gone, when I arrived, (early in June,) and a large 
number lay moored in the mid-river ; some of great size, 
probably eight or nine hundred tons. A few handsome pagodas, 
and other sacred edifices, rise from what seems to be a forest, 
but is in reality a great city. Innumerable boats, of every size, 
move about the river. The larger ones are ut once boat, 
dwelling-house, and shop. The smallest are scarcely so large 
as a coffin. Hucksters, and retailers of all sorts, ply about with 
their wares exhibited on the deck of their batteau; one person 
paddling at each end, generally a woman. Cargo-boats, yawls, 
sanipaiis, pleasure-boats, ice, make up a scene of extraordinary 



303 SIAM. 

vaiiety, animation, and novelty. Ciuials and ditches, navigable a 
part of every tide, are raniilied in all directions, and reach almost 
every house. The river is at once the highway, the canal, the 
exchange, the market, and the pleasure-ground. 

It was always interesting to see how a little good nature pre- 
vented all confusion and danger. No one resents occasional 
concussions. Smaller boats always give place to larger. The 
paddles, held perpendicularly, occupy much less space than oars, 
and all ply with consummate dexterity. If a man or woman be 
knocked into the water, there is a laugh on both sides, and no 
one is alarmed. If a skiff is upset, the boatmen soon hold it 
edgewise, and, with a sudden toss, throw it up into the air. It 
conies down quite dry, and they get in and proceed as if nothing 
had happened. Even children of five and six years push about, 
wholly alone, in boats not much larger than themselves, with the 
edge hardly two inches above the water. I sometimes saw these 
overset ; but no one offered assistance, and the child showed no 
apprehension. On one occasion, as I was passing up the river, 
a little girl, of six or seven years, coming suddenly out of a little 
})assage between two houses, struck her skiff so hard against 
my boat, that hers was upset, and she was thrown off several 
feet, while her little paddle flew in an opposite direction. She 
looked for a moment perfectly amazed, and then burst out into 
a fit of laughter! My boatmen never thought of stopping, and 
1 soon perceived, on looking back, that she had recovered her 
paddle, and was swimming behind her boat, still upside down, 
pushing it toward the shore. A case of drowning is seldom 
heard of. 

The memoranda sent up by the governor of Paknam to the 
Pra Klang, or minister of foreign affairs, produced me an early 
invitation, through one of his writers, to call and see him. As 
soon as the ship came up the river, and put me in ])ossession of 
proper clothes, and a present, Mr. Jones and myself waited on 
him, at an hour agreed uj)on. 

The great man, the apartment, and the ceremonies differed little 
from the scene at Paknam, except in being more respectable. 
His lordship seemed about fifty years old, and possessed that 
important item of honorable distinction in the East — corpu- 
lence. His entire dress being only a cotton pa-nome, or wrapper 
round the hips, corpulence seemed any thing but attractive in 
this case. He held his present office dining the embassies of 
Colonel Burney and Major Crawfurd from England, and of Mr. 
Roberts from our country ; and is certainly a clever and enlight- 
ened man. 



VISITS TO NOBLES — REFRESHMENTS. 309 

We were not required to take off our slioc:^, or liold down oui 
heads ; but those hi attendance, among whom were native princes 
and a Portuguese mterpreter, crawled about on hands and knees, 
with demonstrations ol" the deepest homage. 

My reception was kind, frank, and respectful. He put many 
questions respecting my age, clerical rank, objects in coming, 
what other countries I had ever seen, what 1 saw and heard 
among great men at Ava, the condition of Burmali, probable 
successor to the throne, &c. He had heard, but in a very vague 
manner, of the death of the Burman king, and was deligiited to 
obtain information from one who had so lately visited Ava. 
The answers were all written down by a secretary, and read over 
to him, to be sure of their exactness. They were probably to be 
communicated to the king. Fruits, sweetmeats, and cheroots 
were frequently handed, and for drirdi, tea in little cups, and the 
juice of pine-apples in flowing bujnpers. How dignified, 
rational, and virtuous, such beverages, compared to the spirituous 
potations demanded by the hospitalities of more civilized races! 
I found it difiicuit to introduce religious subjects, except to pre- 
sent him thanks, on behalf of our Board, for his kindness and 
protection to the missionaries, which, though scanty, has 
been valuable ; and to descant a little on the nature of true re- 
ligion, and the policy and justice of free toleration. 

1 discovered none of that dislike of Burmah, which Crawfurd 
mentions as so great, that any allusion to that country was a 
breach of politeness. On the contrary, my having recently spent 
several months there, and seen " the great government men," led 
to numerous questions, not only now, but at each succeeding 
audience. 

At a subsequent visit, I saw my first Siamese acquaintance, the 
governor of Paknam, submitting to the same servilities. Before 
the king, this lordly Pra Klang, himself and the highest nobles 
creep as abject as the poor slaves do here. With us, aii inferior 
stands ; but, in Buiniah and Siam, he seats himself if we stand, 
squats if we sit, and leans down on his elbows if we sit on 
the floor. To hold the head higher than a superior or equal, is 
an affront. Hence, when the servants bring in refreshments, they 
are obliged to place the waiter on the floor, as soon as they reach 
the apartment where the master and guests are, and come in 
crawling on their elbows and bellies, shoving the refreshments 
before them. I always observed the attendants on the young 
nobles walk about on their knees, to avoid the elevation of their 
heads above that of the young master. 



310 SIAM. 

There was less of dignitj' and iiitelligeuce displayed by Si- 
amese nobles than I met with in those ol' Jiurmah. The mag- 
nitude and value of the diamonds and rubies I had seen in 
liurmah, in what counti-y I had seen the best, and the exact 
size and hue of the young white elephant I had seen at Madras, 
seemed topics of primary interest ! The Pra Klang produced 
some of his gems, which were indeed of astonishing size and 
brilliancy. A full band of Siamese music played, dining the 
interview, at a little distance, in a manner far from disagreeable. 

Subsequent visits introduced me to Chow Fah Noi, or his 
royal highness, Prince Mondanoi, Pra Nui Wai, Pra Am-ra- 
mo-le, &c. The circumstances did not so differ from tliose to 
the Pra Klang, as to afibrd new views of national character, and 
1 therefore offer no description. One of the present king's 
sons, and other "nobles," as they are called, visited the mission- 
house during my stay, but neither in dress, deportuient, intellect, 
or information, inspired the least res])ect. Mr. Hunter, the only 
European merchant in Siam, offered to introduce me to the 
king ; but for various reasons I thought it inexpedient. 

Chow Fah Noi is the i)robable successor to the throne ; and in 
fact is now entitled to it, rather than the present monarch, who 
is an illegitimate son. Should he assume the government, Siam 
must advance from her present lowliness and semi-civilization. 
No man in the kingdom is so qualified to govern well. Hia 
naturally fine mind is enlarged and improved by intercourse 
with foreigners, by the perusal of English works, by the study 
of mathematics, by freeing himself from a bigoted attach- 
ment to Boodhism, by candidly recognizing cur superiority, and 
a readiness to adoj)t our arts. He understands the use of the 
sextant and chronometer, and was anxious for the latest nautical 
almanac, which I promised to send him. 
His little daughters, accustomed to the sight 
of foreigners, so far from showing any signs 
of fear, always came to sit upon my lap, 
though the yellow cosmetic on their limbs 
was sure to be ti-ansferred in })art to my 
dress. One of them took pride m repeating 
to me a few words of English, and the other 
took care to display her j)o\ver of projecting 
the elbow forward. This singular custom, 
as has been mentioned, prevails m Burmah, 
Lftdy Muing. ^iid is deemed very genteel. 

Pra Nai Wai (or Koon Sitj as his late title 




PRESENT OF AN ELEPHANT OF A SLAVE BOY. 311 

was) is son of the Pra Klaiig, and resembles Chow Fall in 
many points, botli of ciiaracter and attainments, but does not 
speak Englisli so well. They are intimate friends, and will 
probably rise together. His influence must prove auspicious to 
the best interests of his country. 

None of these distinguished personages manifested any other 
than the most friendly feelings. On making my farewell visit 
to the Pra Klang, I noticed some slaves pushing a young ele- 
phant through the gate into the yard in front of the audience- 
liall. He was just weaned, and came reluctantly, but gently, into 
the midst of the prostrate crowd, manifesting no dislike to the 
strange costume of IMr. Jones and myself When I had caressed 
him a moment, and admired his smooth, glossy skin, I was told 
tliat he was a present for me ! What could I do ? The vessel 
had dropped down, and passed the bar, and it was too late now 
to get water or provisions for such a passenger. Fearful of giv- 
ing offence, by refusing so great an honor, (for only nobles are 
allowed to own and use elephants,) I showed why it was not now 
convenient to take him, and begged that they would give me 
instead, an ankus, or elephant-hook, such as is used in Siani. 
The poor little elephant was accordingly withdrawn, and the 
hook sent to my boat. I brought it home as a keepsake and 
curiosity. But it is a ferocious instrument. The iron head or 
hook weighs four and a quarter pounds, fastened to a handle 
of very heavy wood, about four feet long. A blow might 
be struck with such an instrument, which would break any 
elephant's skull. 

The most interesting gift was a slave boy, about fifteen years 
of age, brought from Cochin-China, a prisoner of war. The 
king had given him, with otheis, to Pra Nai Wai, who, finding 
him to be a boy of uncommon cleverness, had lent him to the 
Rev. Mr. Jones, that he might learn English. Having noticed 
him in that fiimily, and hoping that he might, at some future day, 
carry the gospel to Cochin-China, or at least prove a blessing to 
Siam, I asked the prince, his master, to set him fi-ee, that he 
might retiu-n with me to America, and receive a ti'ade and edu- 
cation. He chose not to set him free, lest it might offend the 
king, but gave him to me before witnesses. After acconipanyii:g 
me to Singapore, Malacca, and China, he came home with me to 
tlie United States, and is now engaged in acquiring the trade of 
a carpenter. If it should hereafter seem proper, he will be sent 
*o an academy a few years, before he returns to Bankok. 



312 



POLICE — CLIMATE. 




Site of Baukok. 



The city has no mayor, and little police of any kind. Each 
great man exercises supreme power over his slaves, which often 

amount to several thousands. Each 
class of foreigners have their head 
man, hefore whom causes are 
heard. There is little litigation 
among the Siamese. No one dare 
carry a complaint to a ruler with- 
out a bribe ; and most persons 
choose rather to suffer indigni- 
ties and injiu-ies, than complain. 
Gambling prevails to a frightful 
extent, especially among the Chi- 
nese. The licensing and man- 
agement of the " hells " is farmed 
out by government to an indi- 
vidual, who is said to pay about 
thirty-three thousand dollars per 
annum for the privilege. He gen- 
erally grows rich on his bargain, 
though his income is only an 
eighth of all sums won. Opium-smoking, among the Chinese 
portion of the population, is very common, and the practice is 
increasing among the Siamese. 

The climate of Baukok may be called hot, but is as pleasant 
and salubrious, probably, as almost any city in the East. The 
suite of Mr. Crawfurd, when here as English ambassador, 
amounted to a hundred and thirty persons. They were very 
inconveniently lodged ; and their stay was during the four worst 
months of the year ; yet no death, or even indisposition, occurred, 
except a casualty. 

November, December, January, and February, are the winter 
months. March, April, and May, are hot. The rains begin the 
last of May, and continue through September, and occasionally 
till the beginning of November. Even in the height of the wet 
season, it seldom rains so much and so long, as to be tedious. 
In the beginning and close of the season, most of every day is 
fine, and often several days successively. It is, on the whole, a 
very j)leasant part of the year. 

The following is an abstract from a register kept for one year 
by Dr. Bradley, a missionary from the American Board : — 
Mean temperature of November, 79.51 ; of December, 77.83 ; 



siAM. 313 

of January, 79.86; of Fobiiiaiy, 80.77 ; of the entire cool season, 
78.99. 

Mean teniperatnre of March, 84.38 ; of April, 80.33 ; of May. 
84.58 ; of tlie entire hot season, 85.09. 

Mean temperature of June, 84.78 ; of July, 83.76 ; of August, 
84.02; of September, 83.62; of October, 83.29; of the entire wet 
season, 83.95. 

Mean temjierature of the whole year, 82.57. 

Mean range of the tiieiniometer, 13°. 

The sacred places in Bankok are called Jfats. They consist 
of a spacious grove, containing pagodas, temples, image-houses, 
dwellings for the priests, and various minor structures used 
in particular observances. The pagodas do not differ greatly 
from those of Burmah, but are smaller and less numerous. The 
priests' residences are generally less sumi)tuous than those of 
Ava, but are oftener built of brick, and have tiled roofs. I saw 
some not only well fiunished, but elegant; and as imposing as 
carving and gilding, in bad taste, can make them. 

In and around Bankok are more than a hundred Wats, occu 
pying all the best locations. As some of them embrace several 
acres, they cover no small part of the site of the city, and are 
the only pleasant parts of it. Paved and shady walks, clean 
courts, and fragrant shrubberies, form a strong contrast to the 
vile odors, rude paths, and spreading mud, encountered every 
where else. The style of building and decoration is, in all, 
more or less Chinese ; but generally with incongruous additions 
of Portuguese, Siamese, or Peguan artists. Griffins, balustrades, 
granite flagging, &c., imported from China, are found in the best 
Wats. Most of the buildings are of brick, plastered on the 
outside, and wrought into an absurd mosaic, with Chinese and 
Liverpool cups, plates and dishes of all sizes, broken and whole, 
so set in as to form flowers and figures ! A more grotesque 
mosaic there could not be. 

One trace of Egyptian architecture is universally found, both 
in sacred structures and private ; viz. in the tapering shape of 
doors and windows. Pagodas here, as elsewhere, are plainly 
of the f-unily of the pyramids. The Burmans make stupendous 
pagodas and monasteries, while the image-houses and zayats are 
comparatively small, and often trifling. On the contrary, the 
Siamese construct trifling pagodas, and small and detached 
priests' houses, and bestow their wealth and labor in erecting 

14 



314 BANKOK — SOMO>'A CODOM. 

vast image-houses or temples. These are made beautiful to 
Siamese taste, by pillars, gilding, historical paiutings, and Chinese 
tinsel. If ever Ciii-istianity become prevalent in this country, 
it will find in these structures an ample supply of churches. 

One cannot avoid contrasting the size and costliness of the 
sacred edifices with the meanness of the city in other respects. 
The houses are small and rude, and the streets in general nothing 
more than foot-paths, overgrown with bushes, bamboos, and 
palms. Every species of filth and offal is thrown among these 
bushes ; and the state of the air may be suj)posed. Every few 
rods, a canal or ditch is to be crossed; and a log, or plank or 
two, without a handrail, is generally the only bridge; those 
of the principal thoroughfares are better, but none are good 
or neat. Of the nuinerous canals, not one is walled up or 
planked, except sometimes to secure a Wat. Most of them 
are left bare at half-tide, presenting a loathsome slime, 
and filling the air with stench, beside being useless half the 
time. Not an effort seems to be made by the authorities to 
improve the city. Hindus make tanks, wells, bridges, and 
choultries for the public good ; but no such efforts are known 
in Siam. Such works ai'e so much less meritorious, according 
to Boodhism, than the erection of sacred edifices and supporting 
priests, that private munificence is led by superstition thus to 
expend itself; and the rulers are too selfish to supply the 
deficiency. 

Several writers speak of the Siamese worshipping a god called 
Somona Kodom. Among others is Finlayson, who attempts to 
translate the name, and says, " The founder of the Siamese re- 
ligion has various names, one of which is Somona Codom, that is, 
^ He who steals cattle'^'! How he got this interpretation he does 
not say. The American ambassador, Roberts, adopts the 
same mistake. He says, " Somona Kodom, the cattle-stealer, a 
Singalese, was the missionary who fii-st propagated this religion 
in these parts " ! Somona Codom is but another name for 
Gaudama; and the Siamese have no other deity. Their lan- 
guage having no letter g,c is substituted; and, as final vowels 
are generally omitted, Gaudama becomes Caudam, or Codom. 
Somona is merely a title, and means "priest" — the priest 
Codom. Li the word Boodha, they change b into p, and d into 
t, making it Puotah, or Phida. They generally write it Pra 
Pootah Chow, or the " Lord God Boodh." 

The Siamese call themselves Tai, (pronounced tie ;) the Shyans 



siAM. 315 

tliey call Tai-Yai, or " the Great Tai." By the Burmans, Siam ia 
called Yudia, from the name of the former metropolis, and the 
people they call Yudia Shyan, or Yudias. The Asamese, the 
Shyans, and the Siamese evidently spring from a common stock ; 
the Shyans probably being the parent. Their existence, as an 
independent people, is probably of no very ancient date. They 
have history, carrying back its dates to the time of Soinona 
Codom, B. C. 544; but their credible records reach only to about 
1350, at which time Ayuthia, the old cajiital, seems to have been 
founded. Before this, their capital was Lakontai, in the Laos 
country They seem to have been at one time sidyect to Cam- 
boja, as is declared in the records of that country. The fact 
that the Cambojan language was once tliat of' the court, and re- 
mains so to a considerable extent, tends to confirm this position. 

The region of Siam seems to have been known to the early 
Romans. There are good reasons for supposing it to be the 
country called SincB, by Ptolemy and Cosmas ; though that term 
may include also Camboja and China. 

The first notice of Siam, by European writers, is an account 
of an overland ex'pedition against Malacca in 1502. Crawfurd 
states that, from 1567 to 1596, Siam was subject to Burmah. Ia 
1612, an English ship ascended the river to A-yut-hia, then the 
metropolis. Nine years afterward, the Franciscans and Domini- 
cans introduced Popery. In 1683, Phaulcon, an enterprising 
Greek, became prime minister, and introduced a respect for 
European customs and nations ; but was cut off before he had 
accomplished any great improvements in society. In 1687, the 
misconduct of some English merchants, at IMergui, ended in 
their being massacred ; and in the following year, some which 
had settled at Ayuthia were expelled the kingdom. Contests 
for the throne distracted the country from 1690 till 1759 ; and 
during this interval, viz. about 1750, Alompra, the victorious 
founder of the present Bin-man dynasty, seized Mergui, Tavoy, 
and Martfiban, and overran the whole valley of the Meinam. 
During the war, some of the principal citizens moved to 
Chantabon, a province on the east side of the Gulf of Siam, and 
thus escaped the presence and exactions of the Burman armies. 
Among these was Pye-ya-tak, son of a wealthy Chinaman by a 
native woman, who gradually gathered followei's, and made 
successful resistance to the new dynasty, till, at length, he drove 
the Burmans from the country, and assumed the throne. With 
a view to commerce, he made Bankok the metropolis, instead of 
Ayuthia, and, after a successful reign, died in 1782. 



316 POPULATION PERSO.XAL APPEARANCE. 

The kingdom is now larger and in a l)etter state tlian ever 
before. The Tenasserini provinces ai-e indeed lost ; but it has 
acquired Keda, Patani, Ligore, and most of the Malay peninsula. 
It has recently acquired one of the most valuable and fertile 
sections of Caniboja; embracing the rich province of Bata-bang. 
The present bountlary, in that direction, is on the Camboja River, 
extending from about lat. 12° to 14° north. Including the dis- 
tricts just named, Siam extends from 7° to 19° of north latitude, 
bounded by the Tenasserim provinces on the west, Burman Lao 
and China on the north, Cochin-China on the east, and the Gulf 
of Siam on the south. The extreme length is about eight hun- 
dred miles, and the average breadth about one hundred. 

The population of Siam is probably about 3,000,000. Of 
these about 800,000 are Shyans, 19.5,000 iMalays, and 450,000 
Chinese, leaving the number of proper Siamese 1,500,000. 

In 1750, the whole population was computed by the French 
missionai-ies at 1,900,000. Our late ambassador to Siam, Mr. 
Roberts, estimates tlie proper Siamese at 1,GOO,000; Siamese 
Laos, 1,200,000; Chinese, 500,000; Malays, 320,000. 

The country is described by Mr. GutzlafF as one of the most 
fertile in Asia; and by the Encyclopiedia Americana as very 
mountainous. Both statements are true in part. The Meinam 
valley, no where over fifty miles wide, the district of Chantabon, 
recently taken from Camboja, and some other level spots, are 
exceedingly productive. But most of the empire is mountainous, 
poor, and scarcely inhaliited. 

In personal appearance, they come behind any nation I have 
yet seen, especially the women. Among the thousands of these 
that came under my notice, I never saw one who was comely. 
The men are often good looking. The national characteristics 
seem to be a broad and flat face, long ajid square lower jaw, 
large mouth, thick lips, small nose, forehead very broad and 
low, cheek bones prominent. A striking pecidiarity is the size 
of the back part of the jaw, the bone and flesh projecting laterally, 
as if" the parotid glands were swollen. The average height of the 
men is five feet, two inches. Both sexes wear the hair close, 
except on the top of the head, from the forehead to the crown, 
where it is about two inches long, and, being kept stroked back, 
stands erect. The rest is kept shaved by njen, and cut pretty 
close by women. As the shaving is not often done, it is gener- 
allj' difficult to tell a man liom a woman. The principal mark 
is, that a woman has a line round the edge of the top-knot, made 
by plucking out a breadth of two or three hau"s, so as to show 



5IAM. 317 

the white skin, as in the picture. Only those who are nice about 
their persons, however, take this trouble. 
Roberts decku-es, in liis Embassy to tJie 
East, that lie never could tell a man 
from a woman, when numbers were 
seated together. 

The raiment of both sexes is alike ; 
consisting of a cloth, wi-apped round the 
hips, with the end passed between the 
thighs, and tucked in at the small of the 
back. It descends below the knees, and 
is generally of printed cotton. At a 
distance, it resembles trousers. Yoimg 
women, and those of the richer sort, 
wear also a narrow kerchief, or scarfj 
crossed on the bi'east, and passing under 
the arms, as in the figure. 

Unlike most Asiatics, the Siamese re- 
ject ornaments in the nose or ears, but are fond of bangles, 
bracelets, necklaces, and finger-rings. Turbans ai-e not used; 
but in the sun, a light hat, made of palm-leaves, precisely m the 
shape of a large mverted milk-pan, is set upon the head by an 
elastic bamboo frame, which holds it up several mches, and 
permits the air to pass between. Neither sex tattoo any part 
of their bodies, deeming it a mark of barbarism. The universal 
mode of carrying small children, as in eveiy other part of the 
East visited by me, is astride on the hip, as shown in the picture. 
It certainly is more easy thus to carry a heavy child than in the 
arms, at least when the infant is divested of all raiment. 

Play-acting, cock-fighting, and flying kites, are prominent 
annisements. In the two latter, princes and priests, both old 
and young, engage with delight. They have also a small pug- 
nacious species of fish, the fighting of which is a very admired 
pastime. 




In regard to buildings, food, agriculture, education, literature, 
medical practice, priesthood, religion, crimes, punishments, gov- 
ernment, laws, marriage, divorce, burial, and many other topics, 
the statements made respecting Burmah apply so neai'ly as to 
make further remarks, in this place, unnecessary. 

They have no standing army, but every able-bodied male is 
liable at any time to be called into the field, by the mere will of 
his chief The king has, for a good many years, made large 



318 ARMY — NAVY — COMMERCE. 

annual purchases of muskets, which must amount now to more 
tlian eighty thousand stand. Of cannon they have plenty. They 
make good brass cannon, some of them very large, but seldom 
liave proper carriages. At Bankok there is the semblance of a 
respectable navy, consisting of scores of war junks, galleys, and 
other vessels of various sizes, built on the Cochin-Chinese model, 
and mounting heavy guns. But the Siamese are no sailors ; and 
when brought into service, these vessels are manned by the 
promiscuous populace, and officered by Chinese or other for- 
eigners. No crews ai'e now attached to their vessels, and they 
stand in rude wet docks, covered by regular ship-houses, as in 
our navy-yards. 

The commerce of Siam has narrowly escaped the fate of that 
of Tringano, Patani, &c. Hamilton states that he visited Siam 
in 1719, " on the foundation of a treaty of commerce, made in 
1684, between King Charles and the King of Siam's ambassadors 
in London." His ship went up to Ayuthia, leaving the guns 
"at Bankok, a castle about half way up the river." The Dutch 
trade must even then have been considerable, as they had a 
factory about a mile below Ayuthia, and a resident company of 
merchants. It appears that, long previous to the said treaty with 
England, some British merchants had a factory near Ayuthia ; but 
a quarrel with the governor, who commanded in 1684, resulted 
in their expulsion, and only within about twenty years has that 
trade regularly recommenced. American, Dutch, and Bombay 
vessels now resort to Bankok ; and though the trade is not likely 
soon to be large or important, it will ])robably be steady. A ne\Y 
treaty of commerce was made with England in 1826, and another 
with the United States in 1833. 

The nmnlier of Chinese junks, regularly trading to this city, 
cannot be less than two hundred annually. Many of them are 
of five or six hundred tons, and some are not less than a thou- 
sand. Thirty or more trade to Canton and vicinity; nearly 
as many are from Hainan ; and the rest from other places. 
Seventy or eighty sometimes lie in the river at a time. Some of 
these vessels are owned by Siamese, and still more by Chinamen, 
residing in Bankok; but the crews are never Siamese. None 
of the larger ones make more than one voyage a year ; going in 
one monsoon, and returning in the other. Most of them arrive 
in December and January, and depart in May and June. Nu- 
merous prows and small junks keep up a constant intercourse 
with the coasts of the Gulf of Siam, and principal neighboring 



SIAM. 319 

islands.* Two or three Siamese sliips, built on the Eiiro])ean 
model, trade to Singapore. Cochin-Chinese vessels were former- 
ly numerous ; but the late war has suppressed that trade, for a 
time at least. An artificial canal, kept in good order, connected 
with the Camboja River, brings some trade from that direction. 
Bankok has certainly the largest commerce, next to Canion, of 
any place in the world, not inhabited by white men. 

Diu-ing the j)resence of the junks in the river, the city ex- 
hibits a very active scene of buying and selling ; many of them 
retailing their cargo from the vessel. The shops furnish, at ail 
times, almost every article demanded by Enro])eau or Indian 
customs. 

The total value of exports per annum from Bankok, is not less 
than five millions of dollars. The chief articles ai'e sugar, sapan 
wood, tin, timber, rice, stick-lac, gamboge, benzoin,f ivory, pepper, 
and cotton ; and small quantities of betel-nut, dried tish, lead, 
gold, silver, gems, tombac,| shagreen skins, and buffalo horns. 
The export price of sugar is about four cents a pound. 

The imports are arms, ammunition, anchors, piece goods, 
cutlery, crockery, mirrors, and many other productions for Euro- 
pean, Chinese, and other foreign consumption. 

Sugar, the principal export, is wholly made by Chinamen, and 
most of the other staples are the fruits of their industry. In- 
deed, to these emigrants Siam owes much of what elevates her 
from among barbarians ; not only in commerce, manufactures, 
and improved husbandry, but in domestic habits. 

The Siamese have coined money, but use cowries for veiy 
small change. The coins are merely a small bar of silver, turned 
in at the ends, so as to resemble a bullet, and stamped with a 
small die on one side. 

400 Cowries make 1 P'hai. 

2 P'hai 1 Songp'hai. 

2 Songphais 1 Fuang. 

2 Fuangs 1 Saloong. 

4 Saloongs 1 Biit or tical. 

4 Ticals 1 Tamloong. 

20 Tamloongs 1 Chang. 

* The chief of these are, on the eastern shore, Banplasoi, Banpakung, 
Banpra, Banpomung, Rayong-Passeh, Chantabon, and Kokung ; and on the 
western side, Ligore, Sangora, Champon, Kalantan, Tringano, Talung, 
Paiani, and Pahang. 

t Crude fraiikiucense, sometimes called Benjamin. 

I Native copper with a small mixture of gold. 



320 PRICES OF LIVIIS'G — FRUITS CHARACTER. 

The two last are nominal. Tliej' sometimes have a gold Tuang, 
equal to two ticals. The tical, assayed at the mint of Cal- 
cutta, yielded about one rupee, three and a hall' annas, equal to 
2s. 6d. sterling, or about sixty cents of American money. 

For weights they use the catty and picid. The catty Is double 
that of the Chinese, but the picul is the same. 

Living is not dear, as the following prices show: — Servants 
wages, per month, $3 ; fuel, five hundred small sticks for $1 ; 
fowls, each, 8 to 10 cents ; ducks, each, 10 to 15 cents ; pork, 
per pound, 7 to 8 cents ; butter (made in the family ;) lard, same 
price as pork ; oil, for lamps and cooking, per gallon, 30 to 40 
cents ; rice, per pound, 1 cent ; milk, per quart, 8 to 10 cents ; 
sugai', per pound, 5 cents ; tea, {,>er pound, 30 to 40 cents ; 
pine-apples, per hundred, 70 to 100 cents; oranges, per hun- 
dred, 30 to 60 cents; coco-nuts, for curry, per hundred, 18 to 
30 cents ; common laborers, per month, $1,50. 

No part of the East is more celebrated for the abundance and 
quality of its fruits. Here are united the fruits of China, the 
Indian islands. Hither Lidia, and tropical America. During 
my stay, the mango, mangosteen, durian, rambutan, pomegran- 
ate, guava, pine-apple, and, I presume, fifty other fruits, were 
in season. About taste there is no disputing. Many Europeans 
disparage Oriental fruits ; but I deem them incomparably supe- 
rior to those of high latitudes, to say nothing of their vast variety, 
and their being enjoyed every day in the year. 

I learned nothing, during my seven weeks' residence in Siam, 
to induce me to dissent from the character hitherto given to this 
l)eople by all travellers. They are crafty, mean, ignorant, con- 
ceited, slothful, servile, rapacious, and cruel. As to truth, " the 
way of it is not luiown." No one blushes at being detected in a 
fraud, or a falsehood, and few seem superior to a bribe. Quar- 
rels are common ; but as no one is allowed to go armed, they 
seldom result in mischief. They are cowardly, and shrink from 
an air of resolution in a foreigner. The Abbe Gervaise said of 
them, a century ago, that, " though as enemies they ai'e not dan- 
gerous, as friends they cannot be trusted." 

But " God made man upright," and the fall has not obliterated 
all semblance of good from any portion of the human race. The 
Siamese have some redeeming traits. They are exceedingly 
fond of their ofFs|iring, and cherish reverence to parents almost 
equal to that of the Chinese. They are temperate, inquisitive, 
and, exce{)t on great provocation, gentle. Women are not re- 



SIAM, 32 J 

duced, on the whole, below their proper level ; for, though cus- 
tom forbids them to rank with men in some tilings, yet in others 
the}' are allowed an influence greater than is accorded them with 
us. They are always their husbands' cash-keepers : they do 
most of the buying and selUng; and are not made to share as 
largely in laborious drudgery as in most countries of Europe. 

The Siamese are certainly a grade lower in civilization than 
the Burmans. They make none of those beautiful cottons and 
silks which the Burmans wear and are destitute of several other 
arts and handicrafts common ^n that country. For utensils of 
l)rass, iron, and porcelain, and almost every prevailing luxury, 
they depend on China. Even the coarse bz'own pottery is 
made chiefly by Peguans. Malte-Brun mistakes in attributing 
to them skill in jewelry and miniature painting. In the first they 
are more clumsy than Burmans, and in the second horrible. 

Still the Siamese are much above the semi-barbarians of the 
3Ialay states, and the islands of the adjacent seas. They pro- 
duce a surplus of sundry articles for exportation, and they have 
an important and well-conducted foreign commerce. Their 
religious edifices show surplus resources in subsistence and 
labor, which barbarous tribes never possess. The government, 
though despotic and ill arranged, is regular and firm, conferring 
many advantages upon society. In music, they use the same 
insti-uments as the Burmans, and excel even the Javanese. I 
have often listened with pleasure both to single instruments and 
full bands. Their houses, dress, habits, and entire condition of 
the nation, are those of a people far above the rudest forms of 
human society. Such considerations as these give them a digni- 
fied position in the grade of nations, and will give momentum 
to their influence in behalf of Christianity, when they shall 
have " turned to the Lord." 

Slavery prevails in Siam. Many chiefs have hundreds, and 
some of them tiiousands. In war, the chief objects are prisoners 
and jilunder. Tliey have almost depopulated some conquered 
districts, to bring the peo])le to Siam. Around Bankok are 
whole villages of Peguans and others taken in war. Their 
ntitional history mentioned above, states that in one of the wara 
with the Shyans of Zemmai, they took 120,000 captives. 

At all times, a slave-trade is carried on along the Burman 
frontier, by wild tribes, who find a ready market for any 
Burmans or Karens they may catch. Persons are daily sold 
into hopeless slavery by their creditors, for, once sold, they have 



322 SLAVERY — STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE. 

no means of paying the debt but by getting a new master. Men 
may sell their wives, parents, and children, at pleasui-e ; and 
often sell themselves. 

How large a proportion of the people are slaves, no one could 
help me to guess. It is probably much greater in and around 
tlie metropolis than elsewhei'e. With many of those kept about 
the person of the master, the slavery is almost nominal ; but in 
most cases it is severe. A common custom is for the master not 
to support the servant, but to allow him two or three months in a 
year to work for himself, to obtain food and clothes for the X'est 
of the year. Oilen they are hired out by tlie year, receiving food 
and clothes, but no part of the wages. Children inherit their 
jiaients' bondage. As in Burmah, debtor slaves are entitled to 
freedom on presentation of the amount due, which, however, 
being generally borrowed, only secures a change of masters. 

The Siamese language is exceedingly simple in its construction, 
and is doubtless an original. It is destitute of terminations to 
signify gender, number, person, mood, or tense. A few par- 
ticles supply the place of these ; but they are almost univei'sally 
omitted, not only in conversation, but by the best writers. This 
renders it easy to learn, but often ambiguous ; and makes a con- 
siderable knowledge of the language necessary to carry on nice 
discussions. Foreigners soon acquire it sufficiently for the com- 
mon purposes of life. The Chinese, being of various dialects, use 
it in intercourse with each other, as more convenient than their 
own, and, their wives being Siamese, the progeny speak it as 
their mother tongue. 

Except as improved from other tongues, the language is mon- 
osyllabic. Many terms, which seem to be dissyllables, are only 
words joined. Thus namta, "teai's," is from nam, water, and la, 
the eye. JLuJcmai, "fruit," is from luk, offspring, and mai, wood. 
3Iany words, particularly in the language of the upper classes, 
are from the Cambojan. This is a polysyllabic language, and 
abounds more in complicated combinations of consonants. 
Terms to express mental operations, and all religious technicali- 
ties, are from the Pali,* which is also polysyllabic. These terms 
undergo various changes, the most common of which is the 
contraction of the two last syllables into one. 

The languages of Siam, Asam, and the Shyans, are essentially 
the same ; but which dialect is primitive, is not Icnown. Our 

* Pronounced by Siamese Bake. 



siAM. 323 

missionaries at Sudiya and Bankok, and those soon to go to 
Zeminai, will be able to investigate the origin and capacities of 
this language, which, being one of the chief in Farthei* India, 
deserves more attention than it has yet received. Captain Low 
])ublished, in 1808, a Siamese grammar; but he had never been in 
the country, and has fallen into so many errors, that the mis- 
sionaries deem his work nearly useless. 

The form of the characters differs little from the Pali. There 
are thirty-four consonants, only five of which are regularly used 
as final, and twelve vowels, with several diacritical marks. It 
has intonations like the Chinese, which makes the difficulty 
of speaking well much greater than that of learning it. Thus 
ma, according to its tone, signifies "come," "a dog," and "a 
horse." ifa means "to seek," " ghost," " five." Kow means "to 
enter," "rice," "a horn," "a mountain," "he," "she," "it," and 
"them." 

The Catholics of Bankok use the Roman alphabet in writing 
Siamese. I noticed also that the Pra Klang's secretary wrote 
in that chai-acter. Chow Fah Yai, eldest legitimate son of the 
late king, and who retired to a convent rather than contend for 
the throne, has not only written, but printed Siamese in our let- 
ters. He has a press made by himself, and types, most of which, 
probably, were obtained from Italy, through the Catholic priests. 
It is certainly of great consequence to follow up this begiunmg. 
If the number of Siamese who can read, be as small as now 
appears, there will be a necessity for Christian philanthropy to 
raise up readers, as well as proper books, and these may be better 
taught in the Roman characters than any other. 

The Baptist Board of Foreign Missions established the mis- 
sion to Siam in 1833. Mr. GutzlafF had visited Bankok in 1828, 
and remained about three yeai-s, but was twice away to Singa- 
pore, and studied the Chinese language principally. Mr. Tom- 
lin, London Society's Missionary at Singapore, made a visit with 
Mr. G., and remained eight months. He afterward came with 
Mr. Abeel, and both remained six months. Mr. Abeel made a 
second visit of six months, and then returned in ill health to 
America. None of these brethren contemplated a permanent 
residence in Siam, and in the report of their fu-st six months' 
labors, Messrs. G. and T. called upon the Baptist brethren 
to "pass the boundary line of Burmah, and come forward to 
Siam." Mr. T. also wrote urgently to Maulmain for a brother 
to be sent at once. He considered the Baptist Board called 



324 ORIGIN OF THE MISSION PRINTING OPERATIONS. 

upon, more than any other, to estabHsh a mission here, not only 
because their stations in liurniali were but a lew days' march 
from liankok, but because they had begun with the Shyaus, 
whose language was so similar, and a large juirt ot" whom be- 
longed to Siam. The project was seriously entertained by our 
JJoard, when Mr. Jones was appointed, in 1829 ; but it was left to 
be decided by the brethren at JMaulmain. Mr. J. was designated 
by them to this service, and sailed from Burniah for Bankok in 
September, 1832. He found' the station had been wholly vacant 
for six months, and he remained entirely alone for sixteen 
months longer. In the mean time, the American Board of 
Conuiiissioners for Foreign Missiotis (without knowing of the 
movement from Burmah) resolved to make Bankok one 
of their stations ; and Messrs. Johnson and Robinson were 
sent out, who arrived about the first of August, 1834. Dr. Brad- 
ley, from the same society, arrived the next year. Mr. J, studies 
the Chinese, and the two others Siamese. Interesting accounts 
from these brethren will be found in the Jlissionary Herald, 
published monthly in Boston. 

Mr. and Mrs. Jones may be said to have mastered the Siamese 
language, and can freely impai't to the people the knowledge of 
the truth. Mr. J. has translated Matthew, Acts, and part of Luke, 
and Mr. Judson's tracts — "Balance," " Catechism," and " Sum- 
mary of Christian Religion," and prepared a tract on astronomy, 
and a brief grammar. Matthew, Acts, tlie Catechism, and the 
Summary have been printed and distributed ; beside sheet tracts, 
containing the ten commandments, the sermon on the mount, 
&c. Two school-books for Siamese have also been printed. 
Mrs. Jones has prepared the History of Joseph, of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and other reading books, together with a copious diction- 
ary, in Siamese and English, which future students may copy to 
their great advantage. 

Mr. Davenport superintends the printing, and studies the lan- 
guage. The issues of the office, within the year, have been 
13,124 books, containing 1,439,720 pages, comprising the Sum- 
mary of Religion ; Acts of the Apostles ; Ten Commandments, 
with explanations; Scripture Parables; A broad-sheet Para- 
ble; First Lessons in English and Siamese; Lessons in 
Arithmetic; Lessons in English; and several publications in 
Chinese. 

It lias been found impossible to have satisfactory schools in 
this cit}'. By no device can the scholars be retained long 
enough to imbibe any useful measure of knowledge. Dm-ing 



siAM. 325 

the period of their continuance, they cannot be made to attend 
regularlj". A few have lately been redeemed from slavery, and 
will be thoroughly instructed. But the cost of children is from 
forty-eight to sixty, and for an adult, about a hundred dohars • 
so that this mode of obtaining scholars cannot be extensively 
pursued. Chinese scholars may be had with somewhat less 
dithculty. 

Mrs. D., beside her daily studies, has a school of twelve or 
fifteen children, which 3Irs. J. daiiy opens with prayer and re- 
ligious instruction in Siamese. Such of them as are not Catho- 
lics, with a few others, ai'C formed into a Sunday school. 




Baptist Mission FremiseSj Bankok 



The mission premises, although pleasantly and healthfully 
situated, are so confined in space, as to be very inconvenient. 
The land, too, is only hired, and with no assurance of perma- 
nence. The buildings consist of three dwelling-houses, a print- 
ing-office, fifty-two feet by twenty, and a small fire-proof building 
for paper, books, &c. Tlie dwelling-houses are similar to those 
of natives in construction, only larger, and cost each about 
three hundred dollars. Mr. Davenport's house, and the printing- 
offices, are in the rear of those shown in tl)e picture. 



326 siAM. 

The great difficulty in multiplying missionaries at this point, 
is the refusal of government to allow them to rent or purchase 
land for residences. 

It has been erroneously supposed that, from Bankok, direct 
overland intercourse might be liad with the frontier of China. 
No part of the Siam frontier approaches China within less than 
about three hundred miles. The intervening space is inhabited 
by various tribes, living insulated from each other, and is tiav- 
ersed by mountains probably not jjassable by cai-avans. Zem- 
mai is the nearest point to Bankok, from whence the western 
borders of China may be aj)proached, and that station luust 
necessarily depend upon Maulmain, in Burmah, both for epis- 
tolary intercomse with America, and supplies of clothiiig, 
printing paper, &c. 

Deeming it important to form the brothers and sisters of this 
station into a regular church of our Lord Jesus Christ, I con- 
vened them in council, and, after full consideration, it was unani- 
mously resolved u])on. After devoting a day to fasting and 
prayer, and drawing out, in full, the platform of doctrine and 
discipline, I proceeded, on the following Sabbath, to preach and 
perform the appropriate solemnities. Nine persons,* of whom 
two were the Chinamen already mentioned, formed the material 
of the church. Li the after part of the day, I administered the 
Lord's supper to this precious band of pioneers. The text was, 
" From the uttermost parts of the earth have we heard songs, 
even glory to the Righteous One." It suggested topics of joy 
and hope, in the contemjjlation of which, all our hearts over- 
flowed with pleasure. Most of tlie bretlu-en and sisters were 
accomplished singers, and our voices sounded to each other 
like almost celestial musi>c. The strange and depressing 
sensations of being at the utmost possible earthly distance 
from those we love, gave place to pleasure, on hearing in our 
own language the praises of the Lord. The sad " Farewell 
forever" to the sacred fraternities of home, lost half its l)itter- 
ness while partaking of church privileges and communion, 
■with Chi'istians from our own land, and of our own persua- 
sion. The promises of God, touching the triumphs of his truth, 
shone with tenfold brightness, amid the gloom and thick dark- 



* Two of these are already gone up on high — Rev. Mr. Reed and Mrs. 
Jones ; but Messrs. Slafler and Goddard, who, with their wives, sailed from 
Boston, 1838, will more than make the number good. 



CONSTITUTIOiS OF THE fIRST PROTESTANT CHURCH. 



327 



ness of a pagan land, where yet liope lias little encouragement 
in the things that are seen. The visible encouragements to 
faith in the {)resence of two Chinese, gave distinctness and glow 
to our visions of hope. Our souls magnified the Lord, and our 
spirits rejoiced in God our Savior. 

The tirst Lord's day in July, 1837, was, by this solemn event, 
rendered memorable in the history of Siam, as the birth-day of 
the first Protestant church of Christ in the kingdom. It was 
indeed a small room, and a small company ; but an occasion lull 
of present benediction and future promise. Hereafter centen- 
nial jubilees will celebrate the event, sacred orators dwell on it 
with glowing tongue, and unborn generations bless the ausjjicious 
hour. The " little one will become a thousand," and the day of 
small things give place to periods of power, extension, and 
triumph. 




328 



CHAPTER V. 

Voyage to Canton — China Sea — Mouth of Pearl River — Outside Pilots — 
Liniin — Boccatigris — Whampoa — Innumerable Boats — Evidences of 
dense Population — Dollar Boat — River Scenery — Population of Can- 
ton — Foreign Factories or Hongs — Walks in the Suburbs — Streets — 
Shops — Vacant Spaces — Placards — Perambulatory Trades — Booksellers 

— Circulating Libraries — Map of the World — Beggars — Sniail-fooied 
Women — Trades — Labor-saving Machinery — Chinese Piety — Tombs 

— Visit to a Hong Merchant — Restrictions on Foreigners — Temples — 
Priests and Nuns — Pagodas — Chinese Sects — Introduction of Boodhism 

— Jos — State of Morals in the Foreign Society — Opium Trade. 

The pain of frequently parting from missionaries and other 
friends, to meet no more on earth, has been no small part of 
the trials of this long and wearisome tour. In leaving Hankok, 
the case was peculiar. Mr. Jones had received baptism at my 
hands ; he had been called to the ministry in my church ; and 
under my roof, he and his wife had their last home in the United 
States. Theu' feeble health and oppressive labors impressed 
on me the conviction that their labors on earth, important as they 
are, will not be much longer enjoyed.* Two of the others and 
their wives had been my fellow-passengers from the United 
States. To part with them cheerfully was a duty ; but the lone- 
srime hours of shipboard, kept fresh, for many days, the Badness. 

A long and tedious p:issage from Bankok to Singapore is always 
expected against the monsoon. Some shi])s have been six or seven 
weeks. One vessel, with missionaries, after being out forty-two 
days, was obliged to return and wait for the change of monsoon. 
I was favored to get down in tAventy-six days without accident. 
Our ship also staid at Bankok a month less than is usual ; so that 
I saved, in the whole trip, at least three months. The Rev. Mr. 
Robinson, whom I left at Singapore, anxious to retinn to Bankok, 
but not then quite ready, was still there, and found no ojjportunity 
for the next five months. 

My stay, this time, in Singapore, amounted to but few days, as 
1 availed myself of the first vessel for Canton. I embarked in 

* Mrs. Eliza G. Jones died March 28, 1838. A Memoir of this admirable woman 
and devoted missionary was published in 1842, by the American Baptist Publicatiou 
Society. The same Society has just issued a new and greatly improved edition. 
Kuv. John Taylor Jones, D. D., was summoned to his reward, September 13, 1851. 



VOYAGE TO CHINA. 399 

tlie Jessie Logan, on the twenty-fii'st of September, 1837, witli a 
j>rospect of a tedious passage, as the monsoon was changing. 
We were happily disa[)pointed, and reached China on the 
sixteenth of October. Rains and squalls, however, rendered the 
voyage comfortless, and my want of an amanuensis rendered it 
difficult either to improve or beguile the time. 

The China Sea has an extraordinary number of shoals and 
petty islands, making its navigation unpleasant and dangerous, 
except when the monsoon enables a vessel to proceed through 
.he centre. The boundary of the sea on the eastward is a succes- 
sion of large islands, scarcely known by name, even to the well- 
educated in our country. It seems reserved for missionary 
enterprise to bring to light the numbers and condition of man- 
kind in Luconia, Palawan, the Baihee, Babuyanes, and Busvigan 
clusters, Mindoro, Balabac, Bangucy, Borneo, &c., besides the 
multitude of the other Philippines, the Moluccas, the Bandu, 
and Aroo archipelagoes, &c. O, how long must it be ere the 
tardy and stinted charities of God's people shall spread Christian 
teachers over all these seas ? 

Ay)proaching the coast of China in a day literally cloudless, 
the fine headlands of the vast entrance of the Choo-Keang, or 
Pearl River, wore their best attractions. No river in the world, it ia 
said, is so easily found and entered as this. No bar obstructs its 
entrance. No alluvial deposits spread dangerous flats along the 
shores. Scores of small but lofty islands affmd at once distinct 
land-marks, and a choice of channels. The entrance, thus 
marked and defended, extends nearly sixty miles along the coast 
from east to west ; and for nearly forty miles toward Canton, the 
river preserves an average breadth of fifteen miles. At that 
point, called by Europeans the Bogue, or Bocca Tigris, the 
breadth is two nfiles, divided in the centre by an island. This 
is considered by the Chinese the entrance of the river, and is 
defended by several forts of no great strength. 

We were boarded, many miles from land, by fishermen offer- 
ing to act as pilots, and by one of them was conducted to our 
anchorage, while his boat went to Macao, for the usual permit 
to proceed up the river, and the inner pilot. These boats, 
though outre to us, are admirably constructed, of pine, decked, 
and schooner-rigged. Under the deck they keep provisions, 
w^ater, &-c., and sleej) in bad weather. On the quarter, they put 
up, in fine weather, a slight house, of bamboo and mats. The 
sight of these men Avas not novel to me, as I had already mixed 
with so many in Burmah, Singapore, and Siam. Their costume 
14* 



330 



LINTIN WHAMPOA 



is a pair of very wide blue nankeen trousers, reaching but little 
below tlie knee, without buttons or flaps. Its diameter at tjie 
waist would embrace a barrel, so that they take a turn in the 
waistband, and tuck in the ends, which keeps them on. Of la- 
borers at work, this is the whole dress : when not employed, 
they add a glazed cotton jacket, reaching to the hips, with very 
wide sleeves. The dress of the genteel classes is not ti-anscended, 
in beauty, costliness, or delicacy, by that of similar classes in 
any country upon earth. 

Lintin is an island, about in the centre of the outer harbor, 
and, though large, has few inhabitants, and is noted only as tlie 
theatre of the execrable opium-smuggling. Sheltered by its 
dreary heights lay the "receiving-ships," which take the drug 
from vessels as they arrive, and get rid of it by means of native 
last boats. 

At the extreme western side of the entrance, twenty miles 
distant from Lintin, is the city of Macao, occupying the extreme 
south point of Heangshan Island. From thence to Canton is an 
inner passage, chiefly used by native boats. 

Fifteen miles below Canton is Whampoa, beyond which 
foreign ships are not allowed to proceed. The anchorage 
extends two or three miles, along a reach of the river, lying east 
and west. In ordinary sliipping seasons, one hundred or more 
vessels ride here, chiefly English and American. Owing to the 
recent commercial embarrassments, there were at this time but 
about twenty-five. Innumerable sampans, occupied by market- 
men, fishermen, fruiterers, washerwomen, &c., with the ships' 
boats, and here and there the ornamented barge of a mandareen, 
or a huge, crowded passage-boat, kept the scene busy and cheer- 
ful. Whampoa is a considerable village, on an island of the 
same name. Its chief business is connected with the supply of 
vessels, and the smuggling of opium. 

Boats lie before the town, literally in thousands ; and almost 
every one, the permanent habitation of a familj'. The occupancy 
of these boats by a family, so far from preventing active employ- 
ment, seems rather a qualification. The wife steers, while the 
liusband rows, aided by children of both sexes, if thi y have any. 
Such as are not quite old enough to row, play about the boat 
with a great gourd fastened to their waist behind, to secure them 
from drowning, in case they fall overboard. Those a little 
younger are carefully tetliered, so that they have the entire use 
of the deck, but cannot pass the gunwale. If there be an infant, 
it is fastened on the mother's back, like a knapsack, without 



CHINA. 331 

appearing to impede her motions, or be annoyed by them. See 
jjictuie, below. Any one conversant witli boatmen, about oilier 
sea|)orts in the East, or even in our own country, cannot fail 
to be struck with the sujjcriority of tliese. Their dress, tlie 
Btructiu'e and appointments of their boats, their quiet, order, 
industry, and good manners, are worthy of all imitation. 

The published accounts of the po])ulousness of China, are 
strongly brought to mind, when one looks around on these boats, 
and on the green fields and barren islands which make up the 
scene from the deck of the ship. Every level spot is subdued for 
paddy, and the sides of every desolate island exhibit not only 
patches of cultivation, but houses and even villages. The same 
impression is ci'eated by a host of fishing-smacks, which sweep 
the waters of the vast harbor. They literally swarm. I have 
stood and counted two hundred at a time, from the deck of 
the ship. 

From Whampoa to Canton, the boats of foreign ships are 
allowed to pass up and down, without examination at the custom- 
houses. Passengers, however, generally use native boats, called 
"dollar boats," as affording better shelter, and more con- 
veniences. 




I found mine to be exceedingly neat, clean, and commodious ; 
divided into three compartments ; the centre being handsomely 
panelled and roofed, so as to form a nice cabin, with lockers, 
windows, &c. Here I was placed with such of my trunks as I 
needed, and, though long since hardened to the sensations of a 
foreigner, felt a little more foreign than usual. In one corner of 



333 DOLLAR BOAT RIVER SCENERY. 

my cabin was "Jos," in griin dnmbness, pointing iijiward with 
liis finger, and looi<ing as tiit and contented as FalstaftI Before 
him smoked tapers of sandal-wood powder, and round about 
were inscriptions on red paper. His Httle closet or shrine had 
latticed doors to keep him from harm, and was the most orna- 
mented part of the boat. Beliind, slieltered by a roof, which, 
upon occasion, could slide over that of the cabin, was the kitchen 
and pantry. Here the wife, with an infimt on her back, steered 
and skulled ; at the same time watching her dinner, and a 
youngster or two. Forward of the caiiin, a flat deck, extending 
beyond the bows, and of the same widtli as the boat, afforded 
ample space to two oarsmen, who sat on stools about six inches 
high. Between them and the cabin was a small veranda, on 
one side of which stood the ever-steaming tea-kettle and cups; 
and on the other the neatly lackered tray of jos-sticks or slow 
matches, from which ever and anon they lighted their cheroots. 
The men were stout, though short, and puiled with vigor, shelter- 
ing their naked backs with a broad i)alm-leaf hat. We passed 
hundreds of boats built and manned in precisely the same man- 
ner ; and as they constitute a very prominent item of the scenery, 
and I was lonesome, the foregoing drawing was made, which 
will convey the idea better than any description. 

The scenery of the river, though monotonous, is attractive. 
On each side are rich rice-fields, with villages embosomed among 
orange-trees, lichis, and palms ; while the rugged hills in the 
rear, irreclaimable even by Chinese industry, are dotted with 
tombs. Some fine pagodas are visible most of the way, one of 
which is given on ])age 343, as seen at a distance. The dikes 
are for the most part paved with excellent stone masonry, and 
planted with oranges, lichis, and bananas. 

Just before reaching the city is the anchorage of junks or 
native vessels trading to Canton, and of an imperial fleet. The 
latter may create a smile, but can awaken no terror. A little 
.further on, other trading-boats of large size lie in hundreds. 
Then come long rows of floating houses, and these, with every 
sort of boat, more numerous as you advance, till it becomes diffi- 
cult, and even dangerous, to thread the maze with a row-boat. 

Arriving, at length, op])osite Kwang-tung, or, as we call it, 
Canton, nothing is seen of the city except the river-suburbs, and 
portions of the wall. Here boats of every description, and small 
jimks, are so crowded together that the utmost skill as well as 
caution is rerpiired, in order to avoid disaster. Cables stretch out 
from a hundred junks ; huge tea-boats, of fifty or sixty tons, lie side 



CANTON. 333 

to side, scores iu a row. Dwelling-houses of elegant and conve- 
nient construction, built on scows, are disposed in regular streets 
of great length. Mandareen boats, with gorgeous and beautiful 
orna0ients, and fleet as the wind, move slowly round, acting as a 
river police. Boats from the European ships, floating tradesmen, 
mechanics, hucksters, shopkeepers, and thousands that seem to be 
mere dwellings, are multiplied on every side ; so busy, so nois}', 
so crowded, so strange, that it seems as if one had suddenly 
dropj)ed upon another planet ; and a man must be vain indeed, 
who does not feel himself an insignificant unit among such 
legions of busy ones, who merely regard him as a foreigner. 

It is computed that eighty-four thousand families live in boats 
at Canton ; and that the whole population of the city and suburbs 
is about a million. 

The accurate representation of a Chinese junk, on page 327, 
will give a perfect idea of their naval architecture. The sails are 
of mat ; three little cabins, each just large enough to contain a 
man at his length, occupy the stern ; over the side hang the hen- 
coops ; a great eye glares upon the bow, and a snake beneath 
warns you of the "touch me not" pugnacity of the crew. I saw 
many of these both atBankok and Singajwre ; and off' the mouth 
of the lloogly, passed several which had ventured even to that 
distance. 

In all other parts of the East, Europeans bear themselves so 
haughtily before the natives, and so transcend them in wealth 
luxury, and intellect, that the contrast at Canton is most striking. 
Here are generally about three hundred foreigners, permanently 
resident, and often more, kept so completely under, that they 
may neither bring their wives, nor take native ladies, nor build, 
buy, ride, row, or walk, without restrictions ; wholly forbidden 
to enter the gates of the city, and cooped up in a spot which 
would be considered in Calcutta or Madras barely large enough 
for one good dwelling and compound. The foreign factories, or 
hongs, are thirteen in number, under the names of different na- 
tions, but occupied somewhat promiscuously by the merchants 
and shopkeepers. They form a close front along the river, about 
three hundred yards in length, with an open space toward the 
water, which is here about a quarter of a mile wide. The 
buildings extend toward the rear about two hundred yards. 
Each hong is divided into several separate portions, entered by a 
narrow alley, which passes through to the reai-, and is thus mado 
to consist of five or six tenements, generally three stories high. 



334 HONGS WALKS SALUTATIONS. 

Tlie heat, smoke, noise, and dreariness of the interior of tliis 
mass of huildings, witli the total absence of female society, gives 
it, in no small degree, tlie aspect of a prison. TJie li'ont rooms, 
liowever, are pleasant, and some of them have tine promenades 
on the roof; An o]>en space in front, abont one liundred yards 
long and fifty wide, serves both as a wliarf and a promenade. But 
the first of these uses obstructs it for the other; to say nothing of 
barbers, cooks, pedlers, clothes-menders, coolies, and boatmen, 
who crowd it most of the day. 

I was kindly made welcome to the American hong, or, as the 
Chinese call it, the "hong of extensive fountains," where, at the 
table of the American missionaries, and of Messrs. Oliphant and 
Co., I enjoyed, for several weeks, daily opportunities ofacquiiung 
authentic information, on all the points which concern my 
agency. 

Fortunately for me, there existed, during my stay in Canton, 
no particular jealousy of foreigners. Accompanying the mis- 
sionaries and other gentlemen in their daily walks for exercise, 
I was enabled to rand)ie not only over all the suburbs, but among 
the villages and fields adjacent. We were not specially ill treated ; 
but I have nowhere else found quite so much scorn and rude- 
ness. Nearly all the time, some of the youngsters would be 
calling out, as we passed, " Foreign devils ! " "barbarians! " "red- 
bristled devils ! " often adding obscene expressions, and some- 
times throwing light missiles; all which the parents seemed to 
think very clever. Often, indeed, they would direct the attention 
of very small children to us, and teach them to rail. Our clerical 
profession seemed known to many; and these would shout 
"Story-telling devils!" "lie-preaching devils! " In streets much 
frequented by foreigners, these things rarely occurred ; but in 
others, we attracted general attention ; and if we stopped for a 
tew moments, a crowd would immediately choke up the street. 
Sometimes Dr. Parker's patients would recognize him, and we 
would be asked to sit down ; tea and pipes would be offered, 
and a strong sense of confidence and gratitude manifested. But 
the crowd would soon become disagreeable, and we were glad 
to pass on to get fresh air, and to exempt our friends from 
annoyance. 

The width of the streets is seldom more than four or five 
feet, and often less. The houses rarely exceed one story high ; 
and, except on business streets, all the better ones are invisible, 
being buiit, like those of Paris, within a walled enclosure. 
The streets are all flagged with large slabs of smooth stone, 



CANTON. 335 

principally granite. The breadth excludes wheel carriages, 
of course, and the only vehicles are sedan chairs, which are 
constantly gliding along at a very rapid rate ; those for ladies 
being closed with blinds, or gauze, but not so as to prevent the 
occupant from looking through. As these chairs, or loaded 
coolies, come rushing along, a perpetual shouting is kept up, to 
clear the way ; and, unless you jump to the wall or into a shop, 
you are rudely jostled ; lor, though they are polite and kind, their 
lieadway and heavy burden render it imj)ossible to make sudden 
pauses. As to walking arm in arm, it is (piite out of the ques- 
tion. I saw none of the unbroken ranges of piazza spoken of by 
geographers ; but in some jdaces, mats are spread across the 
street, which exclude the sun. The ejid of each street has a 
strong gate, which is shut up at night; chiefly lor security against 
thieves. 

The shops are often truly beautiful ; but the greater number are 
occupied as well by the workmen as the wares. Such minute 
subdivision of callings I have seen no where else. Not only are 
trades subdivided into the most minute branches, but the shops 
are often limited to one or two species of goods. Some of those 
which I entered would vie with those of London, for style and 
amount of capital invested. In each, the idol has a handsome 
and conspicuous situation. As Chinese is read perpendicular!}', 
the sign-boards are suspended downward, and are thus well 
adapted to narrow streets. Tliey are generally beautifully exe- 
cuted, and often, after announcing the name and occuj)ation, 
close with sage sentences ; such as, " Gossipping and long sitting 
injure business;" "No credit given; former customers have iu- 
Bpired caution." 

The vacant places present a mixture of incongruities — at- 
tractive, pitiable, shocking, and ludicrous. Here is a doctor, 
surrounded by roots, spreading his plaster on a man's shin ; 
there is an astrologer, disclosing fortunes. Here is a group of 
happy children, purchasing smoking comfits; and there is fi 
meat stall, surrounded by stout fellows, swallowing pork 
stews. Here are some hungry mendicants, gloating upon the 
dainties ; and close by are some of their fraternity, unable any 
longer even to ask charity, lying unheeded, to die of himger. 
JMountebanks, clothes-dealers, musical beggars, petty auctioneers, 
gamblers, etc., make up the discordant aggregate. 

At these openings and other cons])icuous places, placards cover 
the walls; and as with us, quack medicines, government proc- 
lamations, and business cards were the principal. Some were 



336 PERAMBULATORY TRADES — BOOKSELLERS. 

novel, and showed tlie want of news})apers, viz. lampoons and 
criticisms on public men. Some of tliese were intrejiid and 
severe, but none seemed gross and libellous. Alas, that our 
country should be so much behind China in the treatment of 
official characters I 

Many trades are here perambulatory, which are so nowhere 
else. Among these moving mechanics I noticed barbers, cooj)ers, 
tinmen, blacksmiths, shoemakers, and tailors, beside a medley 
of fruiterers, hucksters, fishmongers, confectioners, pedlers, rat- 
catchers, pastiy-cooks, butchers, picture-men, and I know not 
what. The throng and confusion of these narrow streets is thus 
much increased, while their various bells, drums, gongs, and 
cries keep up a perpetual din. 

In these walks I observed, what I believe is not to be seen in 
any part of India — regular native booksellers. They generally 
display a considerable assortment of works, at astonishingly 
cheap prices. The mo.al tendency of these works is said to 
be in general good ; but tlie intellectual benefit is small. This 
was often illustrated by the close proximity of some gray-bearded 
fortune-teller, with five times the custom of his literary neighbor. 
1 was often amused to see the ludicrous gravity with which these 
men of destiny drew wonder and cash from their gaping patients ; 
and to mark the diversified countenances of tliose who retired. 
The doleful, drawmouth visage, or the arch chuckle and rubbed 
hands, plainly told which had received "dampers," and which 
brought oft' animating assurances. As usual, these worshippers 
of fortune seemed to be those she had hitherto least favored. 

Beside the bookstores are circulating libraries, in the literal 
sense of the term ; that is, the librarian, having his books ar- 
ranged in two neat cases, bears them on a pole across his shoul- 
der, from customer to customer. Some of these have several 
thousand books ; but the greater part being in the hands of bor- 
rowers, his burden is not excessive. 

A tolerable idea of Chinese geography may be gathered from 
a glance at their maps. Mr. Gutzlaff" was kind enough to present 
nie with one of the world, and to translate many of the names. It 
is two feet wide by three and a half higli, and is almost covered 
with China ! In the left hand corner, at the top, is a sea, three 
inches square, in which are delineated, as small islands, Europe, 
England, France, Holland, Portugal, and Africa. Holland is as 
large as all the rest, and Africa is not so big as the end of one's 
little finger ! The northern f ontier is Russia, very large. 

The lett corner, at the bottom, is occupied by " the western 



CANTON. 337 

ocean," as it is called, containing the Malay peninsula, pretty 
well defined. Along the bottom are Caniboja, Cochin-Chiiia, 
&c., re[)resented as moderate-sized islands ; and on the right is 
Formosa, larger than all the rest put together. Various other 
countries are shown as small islands. I should have given an 
engraving of this curious map, but that a true reduction to the 
size of a page would have left out most of these countries al- 
together! The surrounding ocean is re{)resented in huge waves, 
with smooth passages, or highways, branching off to the difierent 
countries, or islands, as they represent them. They sui)pose that 
ships which keep along these highways go safely; but if they, 
through ignorance or stress of weather, diverge, they soon get 
among these awful billows, and are lost! 

The beggars are very numerous and pitiable. They are seldom 
obtrusive ; but a donation to one will bring several upon you, and 
keep you annoyed for many paces. In streets so narrow, they 
cannot, of course, be allowed to sit or lie down. The open 
spaces near temples and other public places afford the only 
chance for them to rest , and here many of them, utterly house- 
less, lie down and die. In one of these openings, not fifty feet 
square, I have seen six or eight of these uidiapj)y beings at a 
time breathing their last, covered only with an old mat, such as 
comes round goods. Many, who walk about, have meiely such 
a mat, fastened round their loins by a wooden pin. With such 
shelter only, do they pass the night iii)cn the earth or pavement ; 
and always after a cold night, some are found dead. There 
seems to be no particular want of charity among those who are 
able to give ; but the evil lies too deep for casual gills to cure. 
Such as are not too sick to go about, are sure of something daily ; 
for custom gives them a right to enter any place, and makes it 
disgraceful to send them away empty. They are obliged to de- 
part, however, with the gift even of a single cash, and are often 
kept waiting a long time. I have oflen, as I passed, admired the 
patience both of the beggar and the shopmen. Many of them 
carry small cymbals, or two pieces of bamboo, with which they 
keep time, at a deafening rate, to a plaintive drawl. The shop- 
man stands the racket as long as he can, or ti'l a customer come 
in, when he throws them the cash, and they are bound to go. If 
he give soon, the place is but so much the sooner filled by 
another. 

Distressing as are the sights of mendicity in Canton, they are 
Jess so than I have seen in some other cities, especially Dublin, 

15 



338 SMALL-FOOTED WOMKJNT — PLACE OF EXECUTION. 

and Turin ; and almost all are cither blind or evidently sick, which 
is far from being the case either in L'eland or Italy. 

I had sn])})osed that sniall-fboted women, being of the genteel 
circles, would not often be seen. Instead of this, large numbers 
of them, evidently poor, and often extremely so, are met with in 
every street. Many of these, doubtless, have been reduced from 
competency ; but many are the ollsjiring of persons, who, li-om 
fondness or ambition, had brought up their children in a manner 
beyond their station in life. The smallest shoes and models 
shown in Anierica are no exaggerations. All, indeed, are not 
equally compressed, but often the foot of an adult does not ex- 
ceed four inches in length ; and from a breadth of two and a 
half inches at the heel, tapers to a perfect point. They walk 
precisely as a person would do on two wooden legs. Other 
poor women often go barefoot, but these never. Either the ap- 
pearance of sucli a loot is too bad, or the toes, turned under, are 
too tendei'. Many of these victims of a false pride sit in open 
spaces, as public menders of old clothes. A jjassenger can thus 
get a patch or a button set on, while he waits — a custom which 
might usefully be introduced among us. 

We rail at tlie Chinese for compressed feet with little reason, 
so long as we persist in compressing the waist. Nor are we 
wholly exempt from the folly of crushing the feet also. Even 
our easiest shoes, though less absurd than the Chinese, are by 
no means patterned from natiu'e. 

I enjoyed, in walking with Mr. Bridgman, what few foreigners 
do — the advantage of an interpreter. I was thus enabled to 
stop at many places, witnessing various Chinese arts, and con- 
versing freely with tlie operatives. Many of these occupations 
are known among us ; but in every case, they seem to be carried 
on by an unique method. I was surprised to find labor-saving 
machinery employed to a considerable extent One instance 
pleased me exceedingly ; viz., a bellows for blowing glass, 
which almost entirely saved the workman's lungs. In every 
establishment, whether of an artist, mechanic, or tradesman, we 
were received with great civility, and generally offered some 
slight refreshment. 

One of our walks was to the place of execution, which in 
China is generally done by beheading. It is part of a populous 
street, thirty or forty feet wide just at that ])oint, and a common 
thoroughfare. On one side is a high blank ^vall, and on the other is 
a row of potteries. The drying wares are spread over a consid- 
erable part of the space, bringing strongly to mind the bloody 



CANTON. 33g 

potter's field of the New Testament. A narrow shed, twelve or 
tit'teen feet long, stood against the wall, with shelves of open 
bamboo. Lifting u>) an old mat with my cane, there lay a row 
of heads, aj)parently three or Ibnr days old. On the ground in a 
corner were a ii^w skidis, nearly bleached by time. Executions 
occur here every few days, and with very little notice or for- 
mality. The poor culprit kneels on tlie earth ; his long cue is 
twisted up into a knot upon his head ; he puts his palms together, 
in a posture of obeisance ; and leaning forward, one stroke severs 
liis head from his bodj^ Tlie remains are generally allowed to 
be removed by friends. 

The Chinese bury their dead, and are very careful of the 
tombs of ancestors. To these they often resort, to make prayer 
and oflerings; and so long as there are male descendants, they 
ore kept in repair. Their mode of constructing them is peculiar, 
invariable, and so unlike any others in the world, that a picture 
alone can explain. 




Chinese TomU 

They cover many acres of ground near Singapore, Malacca, 
and other cities where Chinamen are numerous, and land plenty ; 
and even in China engross much space, but generally only rocky 
or barren spots, incapable of other uses. 

The cheapness and frivolity, as well as the universality, of 
Chinese piety, was eveiy evening forced upon our observation, 
whether we returned on foot or by boat. Not a family, on shore 
or afloat, is without its little altar ; nor does a sun set without each 
being lighted up with tapers and incensed with fragrant matches. 



310 RESIDENCE OF A MANDAUEEN. 

Besi(le the gaudy domestic altar, with its flaunting mottos and 
varied tinsel, nearly every house has a little niche in the wall, 
near the ground, inscribed with sacred characters, where also 
tapers and jos-sticks are burned. The air is thus loaded every 
twilight with sandal-wood siuoke. Here and there you see men 
niakhig additional offerings, by setting on fire articles of gilded 
paper, or making libations before the shrine. These vespers 
being finished, the Chinaman's religion is complete for that day; 
and he retires to pleasure or rejfose, with the full comfort of 
self-righteousness. 

It is so unpoj)uIar to be familiar with foreigners, that an op-, 
portunity of visiting the jjrivate houses of respectable Cliinese 
is rarclj' enjoyed, by transient sojourners in Canton. One of the 
principal hong merchants, being particularly indebted to Dr. P. 
for removing a polypus, and at the same time a man of uncom- 
mon independence, I was glad to embrace a proposal to visit 
Jiim. Dr. P. having announced our desire, we received a veiy 
cordial invitation. The house stands in a crowtled subiu-b ; 
nothing iMsing visible from the street, but a wall of the ordinary 
height. Passing through a vestibule, attended by porters, we 
were ushered into a large and handsome hall, where the old 
gentleman soon joined us. His dress was negligent, but costly, 
and resembled that of the mandareen figures in our tea-shops. 
He saluted us in English, and the conversation was so main- 
tained. After a little, he invited us to see his establishment, 
and kindly accompanied us. I Avas soon lx;\vildered in passing 
through halls, rooms, and passages ; crossing liltle court-yards 
and bj-idges ; now looking at scores of gold-fish in a taid<, and 
now sitting in a rustic summer-house on the top of an artificial 
cliff; now admiring who'e beds of china asters in full bloom, and 
now engrossed with large aviaries or grotesque bee-hives. Here 
were miniature grottos, and there were jets of water. Here wei^e 
stunted forest-trees and }>orcelain beasts, and there was a lake 
and a fancy skiff! Yet the whole was compressed into a space 
not larger than is occujiied by some mansions in the middle of 
our large cities I 

There was not that quaint absurdity about all this, that l)ooks 
-and pictures had led me to suppose. True, it was exceedingly 
artificial, and thoroughly Chinese ; but there were taste and beauty 
in it all. Why should we break down all tastes to one stand- 
ard.' He that can only be pleased in a given way, is illy fitted 
to travel ; and I am sure any one not ])redeterniined to contemn, 
would admire and enjoy the grounds of Tinqua. 



CANTON. 3^ J 

The style of the rooms plc.ised mc less. They were numerous, 
but all furnished in the same manner, and most of them small- 
Beside gorgeous Chinese lanterns, hung Dutch, English, and 
Chinese chandeliers, of every size and pattern. Italian oil- 
paintings, Chinese hangings, French clocks, Geneva boxes, 
British plate, &c. &c., adorned the same rooms, strewed with 
natural curiosities, wax fruits, models, and costly trifles, from 
every part of ttie world. 




Chinese Temjile. 



There are one hundred and twenty-four temples in Canton, 
beside the numerous public altars seen in the streets. 1 saw 
the principal ones without the walls, which are said not to be 
inferior, on the whole, to those within. They strikingly resemble 
the monasteries of Europe. The handsomest is one of the 
Boodhists, in the suburb of Honan, on the ojjposite side of tlie 
river. Being accompanied by Messis. Bridgman, Parker, and 
Morrison, who were acquainted with the superior, I was not only 
shown eveiy part by his order, but had the pleasure of his 
society for an hour. Cloisters, corridors, court-yards, chapels, 
image-houses, and various offices, are scattered, with little regard 
to order, over a space of five or six acres. Pi-iests, with shaven 
crowns and rosaries, loitered about ; but I never saw common peo- 
ple come to worship either at this or other establishments. Some 
of the priests occupied small and mean apartments ; but those 
of the superior are spacious, and furnished not only with the ordi- 
nary conveniences, but with chandeliers, mirrors, pictures, &c., 
and with an extensive library. The buildings are chiefly of 
brick, one story liigh, the walks handsomely flagged, and the 



312 TEMPLES PniESTS EXPENSE OF RELIGION. 

coiiit-jarit ornamented with large trees, or beautiful pai-terres 
of flowers. The printing-office contains stereotype blocks 
enough to load a small vessel, so arranged as that every work ia 
readily accessible. The j)rincii)al apartjnent or temple is about 
a hundred feet square, with the usual images, &c. We attended 
here, to witness the regular evening service. It seemed to create 
little interest, for out of one hundred and sixty resident priests, 
there were but fifty present ; and these uttered their repetitions with 
most obvious indifference. Tlieir prayers are in Pali, ostensi- 
bly, but I am told not truly, as their mode of writing renders it 
lUterly unintelligible to any one. They keep time by striking a 
wooden drum, and occasionally a bell. At a certain stage of the 
process, the whole compaiiy formed into single file, and marched 
round the hall, without ceasing tiieir repetitions. This gave us 
a full view of their countenances ; and so far as these indicated, 
a more stupid set could not be picked out in all Canton. 1 have 
already remarked this characteristic of the Boodhist priesthood, 
in other countries; and am confirmed in the belief of its 
being attributable to the character of theii* religion, and the 
nature of their duties. 

Instead of the humble dress of Burman and Siam priests, 
these wear as handsome as they can get, with shoes and stock- 
ings. What is worse, some are in rags, barefoot, and squalid 
with apparent poverty. They have, however, a common refec- 
tory, where I presume all fare alike. The buildings were erected 
at different times by the munificence of individuals, and by the 
revenues of the establishment, which amount to about eight 
thousand dollars per annum. 

While we walked over the i>remises, the superior had pre- 
pared us a repast of sweetmeats and fruits, to which he sat down 
with us. His manners were easy and elegant, his dress unosten- 
tatious, and his counten.nnce full of intelligence and mildness. 
His age is but thirty-eight. We, of course, endeavored to make 
the visit profitable to him. My heart yearned over him; and 
when he assured me that he meant to visit America in a year or 
two, I was hapf)y to promise him a most cordial reception. 
Priests may leave the country, and return, without the restraints 
which make it dangerous to others. 

The whole number of priests in Canton is estimated at two 
thousand ; of nuns, one thousand. The annual expense of the 
hundred and twenty-four temples is two hundred and fifty 
thousand dollars. An equal siun is required for the periodical 
iestivals. Half a million, annually paid in one city for religion, 



CANTON. 2 JO 

by pagans! And the wliole amount wliich all Christendom 
gives for jmgans in a year, is but six times as much. 

I saw no pagodas at any of 
these establishments. They gen 
eially stand on some hill, alone. 
Unlike tlie cones or pyramids of 
IJurniah, these rise like shot- 
towers, with successive stories, 
marked by a cornice or narrow 
]»cnt-house. The top is often cov- 
ered deeply with earth, fronr 
wliich shrubs shoot up, and form 
a romantic tinish ; as is the case 
with that here represented. There 
are but two within the city. One, 
called Kwa-ta, or "adorned pa- 
goda," has nine stories, and is one 
hundred and seventy feet high, 
octagonal.* The other, called 
Kwang-ta, or unadorned pago- 
da, is one hundred and sixty 
feet high. The first was built 
about thirteen hundred years ago; 
the latter during the Tang dy- 
nasty, which closed A. D. 906. I believe they are not resorted 
to for devotional purposes ; at least not commonly. As crosses 
are planted, in some countries, to mark the right of possession, 
so these huge and durable monuments seem only to mark a 
country swayed by him who claims "the kingdoms of this 
world, and the gloiy of them." How artfully, in ten thousand 
forms, does he, in every pagan land, confirm and perpetuate his 
rule ! But his time is short. 

The Chinese are divided into three sects, viz. those of Ju-kea- 
su, Taou, and Boodh. 

The Jukeasuisfs are the followers of Kong-foo-tze, or, as the 
Jesuits Latinize it, Confucius, who flourished about five hundred 
and sixty years before Christ, and was therefore contemporary with 




Chinese P.igo.Ia. 



* The reader may compare, at his leisure, the different forms of (he pagoda, 
viz. that of Seringham, page 209 of this volume ; of the Peguans and Siamese, 
in the landscape of Tavoy; and in the view of Boardman's grave, page 50; 
of the interior of Durmah, page 118; and of China as above. 



344 CHINESE SECTS. 

Pythagoras. He was of royal descent, and a mandareen ; but early 
ret^igiied oflicial lile, and devoted himself to literature, morals, 
and [)olitieal economy. Reducing the maxims of former sages 
to order, he added valuable extracts from current works, and 
])rudeut sayings of liis own, and produced a digest, which con- 
tinues to be the ultiinn thide of Chinese piety. Travelling ex- 
tensively as a popular lecturer, and sustained, not less by his 
high birth and eloquent address, than by the excellence of his 
doctrines, he soon founded a sect which became virtually the 
state religion. It is, however, much less intolerantly maintained, 
than either Popery or Protestantism, where united with the state. 
The other religions are allowed, and sometimes fostered. Great 
officers, and even the emperor himself, build and endow 
IJoodhist and Taouist temples. 

The system of Confucius is highly extolled by European 
Avriters, and most extravagantly by Chinese. As accounts of it 
are accessible to all readers, I need not stop to describe it. He 
seems to have regarded religion less than politics ; and the bur- 
den of his works relates to social virtues, civil government, and 
adlierence to ancestral habits. 

The sect of Taou (literally reason] was founded by Laou-Keum, 
a contemporary and rival of Confucius. His followers may be 
called the mystics of China. They profess alchymy, assume 
mysterious airs, read destinies on the palms, and make great 
pretensions to deep research and superior light. Their practical 
works contain, in general, the same laudable precepts which 
distinguish the system of the Jukeasu. 

The third sect follow Fo-c, sometimes spelled FohL Foe is 
said to be the old orthography of Fuh, which is the Chinese 
abbreviation ofFuh-ta, or Boodha. The Boodhism of China is 
the same as that of Burmah, which has been sufficiently described. 
The system is certainly far older than either of the others. It is 
generally supposed to have been introduced about A. D. 70. 
Kempfer dates the introduction about A. D. 518, when "Darma, 
a great saint, came from the West, and laid the foundation," &c. 
Chinese historians agree that the worship of Fohi was originally 
brought from Lidia. Sir William Jones says, confidently, " Boodh 
was unquestionably the Foe of China." 

This sect probably embraces one third of the entire population. 
The government acts with indecision toward it, at one time de- 
nouncing it as dangerous, arid at another contributing to its 
support. IMr. GutzlafF saw, at Pooto, some placards calling on 



I 



siAM. 345 

tlio jiooplc, in tlic name of tlie emperor, to repair to the Boodh- 
ist temple of tluit i)lace, in order to propitiate Heaven for a 
fruitful sjiring. Tlie priests are numerous, but not greatly re- 
spected. I saw some of tliem in the streets daily. A few were 
exceedingly well dressed ; but generally they were both shabby 
and dirty, sometimes quite ragged. 




The Chinese Boodh. 

The idol differs somewhat from that of the Burmans and Si- 
amese. The above is an exact delineation of a large image or 
Jos, which I obtained from Mr. Roberts at 3Iacao, and is now 
in the Baptist Missionary Rooms, Boston. 



The state of morals among the English and other foreigners 
here, is delightfully superior to that of other places I have 
seen in the East. A particular vice, so notorious elsewhere, is 
indeed effectually prevented by the Chinese police. But in 



346 SOCIETIES — OPIUM TRADE. 

otiier resj)e(;ts the superiority is manifest. The Sabbath is well 
observed ; and sobriety, temperance, and industry, distinguish a 
society, whicli, but for the exclusion of females, would be ex- 
cellent. Of course, the total absence of motliers, sisters, wives, 
and daughters, prevents any man from feeling at home iii Can- 
ton ; and few stay longer than they can helj). 

Tlie British and American gentlemen, beside suj)porting the 
hospital, have formed two societies for the good of China, viz. 
the "Morrison Education Society," and the "Society for the Dif- 
fusion of Useful Knowledge." Both are yet in inci])ient stages. 
Their designs are fully described in the Chinese Repository. 
Another measure is gradually ripening for execution, viz. the 
establishment of a Medical Missionary Society ; which ])romises 
effectually to try an experiment on which the hearts of many 
friends of China are strongly set. The object of this society will 
be to encourage medical gentlemen to come and j)ractise gratu- 
itously among the Chinese.* 

The great blot on foreigners at Canton, though not on all, is 
the opium trade. That men of correct moral sensibilities and 
enlightened minds should be so blinded by custom, or desire of 
gain, as to engage in this business, is amazing. A smuggler in 
Canton is no more honorable than a smuggler on any other 
coast ; in some respects less so. There is less chivalry, hardi- 
hood, fatigue, exposure, and inducement, than in the case of a 
poor man, who braves both the war of elements and legal penalty, 
to obtain subsistence for his family. Here, among a j)eaceable 
and perhaps timid people, they incur no personal hazards, and 
set at defiance edicts and officers. No other smuggling intro- 
duces an article so deadly and demoralizing. The victims of it 
daily meet the smuggler's eyes, and are among the patients re- 
sorting to the hospital he helps to support. So well do they 
know the moral and jihysical evils of oj)ium, that not one of 
them ventures on the habit of using it himself. 

* A Medical Missionary Societ}', with the above object, was formed in 
Canton early in 1838. It does not purpose to pay the salary of medical men, 
but to receive such as may be sent by missionary boards, or come at their own 
cost; and to furnish them with hospitals, medicines, attendants, &.c. It will 
establish libraries and museums, and take every proper measure to spread the 
benefits of rational medicine and surgery among the Chinese ; in the hope of 
thus paving the way for the relaxation of those laws, customs, and prejudices, 
which now exclude the Christian missionary. Of this society, T. R. Colledge, 
Esq. is president. The society has already received cash subscriptions to 
the amount of ^9936 ; chiefly from the English and American gentlemen on 
the spot. 



I 



CANTON. 347 

In tliis, as in other cases, niugnitiuje gives dignity and 
sanction to the operation. No other smuggling is on so grand a 
scale. The animal sale amounts to a sum equal to the entire 
revenue of the United States, and to the whole value of teas 
exported to England and America! At this very time, though 
efforts so extraordinary and persevering have been put Ibrth hy 
the Chinese government, to stop this iniernal traffic, there are 
twenty-four opium shi[)s on the coast. We have little reason to 
wonder at the reluctance of China to extend her intercourse 
with foreigners. Nearly the whole of such intercourse brings 
upon her pestilence, poverty, crime, and disturbance. 

No person can describe the horrors of the oi)ium trade. The 
drug is produced by compulsion, accompanied with miseries to 
the cultivators, as great as slaves endure in any part of the earth. 
The pcices paid to the producer scarcely sustain life, and are 
many per cent, less than the article produces in China. The 
whole process of carrying and vending is an enormous infringe- 
ment of the laws of nations, and such as woidd immediately 
produce a declaration of war by any European power — the 
grandest and grossest smuggling trade on the globe ! The in- 
fluence of the drug on China is more awful and extensive than 
that of rum in any country, and worse to its victims than any 
outward slavery. That the government of British India should 
be the prime abettors of this abominable traffic, is one of the 
grand wonders of the nineteenth century. The proud escutcheon 
of the nation, which declaims against the slave trade, is thus 
made to bear a blot broader and darker than any other in the 
Christian world. 




34S 



CHAPTER VI. 



Embark for home — Straits of Caspar and Suncia — Pelt}' Monsoon — Cape 
of Good Hope — Kemarkable Phenomenon — St. Helena — False Alcirm 
•^ Slave Trade —Landing at Newport — Summary — Reflections. 



Besides the sweets of being "homeward bound," the voyage 
from the East is, in many respects, j)leasanter than the outward, 
especially when we embark in the fall. The winds are almost 
all fair; the distance is much less; the repeated sight of land 
breaks up the dreary monotony of four or five months' passage ; 
and vessels generally touch at the Cape of Good Hope, or St. 
Helena, which adds a large aniount of interesting information, 
and ftirnishes refreshments to sustain both health and spirits. 

The stagnation of trade is now so complete, (November, 1S^7,) 
that but one vessel is loading at Canton for the United States, 
and no other expected to sail for six or eight weeks, if so soon. 
She belongs to Messrs. Brown and Ives of Providence, and in 
her I t<ike passage, grateful for an opportunity to depart, when 
my business is finished. 

Leaving Macao November 24th, we came down the coast of 
Cochin-China, between the Natunna and Anamba grouj>s of 
islands, and passing in sight of Middle Island, St. Julien, St. 
Esprit, St. Baibe, &c., reached the Straits of Caspar in ten days. 
Here we saw Banca, Pulo Lat, and other islands. A day or two 
more brought to view the beautiful heights of Sumatra, along 
which we coasted to the Straits of Sunda, stuToimded by noblo 
sceneiy. The mountains of Java and Sumatra, the fine ]»eaks 
of Cockatoa and Prince's Islands, the ntunerous minor islands, 
the quiet seas, and tiie glorious skies, make it one of the most 
interesting j)assages I know. 

Leaving Java head December 7tli, we took the petty monsoon,* 
and hauled close upon it, to lat. 16° south, where we reached the 

* The petty monsoon is a remarkable intrusion on the south-east trade-wind. 
ft exists six months in the year ; viz. from November to May, between lat. 
2" and 10° south, and exlendiiig from Madagascar to Java. It is sometimes 
broader. We had it as far as lat. 10°. It generally blows fresh, and often 
in squalls. 



VOYAGE HOME. 349 

regular south-east trade, and rolled before it more than four thou- 
sand miles, in about a month. On the 17th of January, 1838, we 
came in sight of Africa, and sailed for two days close along the 
sublime outline of the mountains which form the " Cape of 
Storms." The winds here are almost always ahead for home- 
ward vessels, which therefore hug the shore, for the benefit of 
the westerly current ; but we were favored with a gentle fair 
wind all the way round to Table Bay. 

No sooner had we dropped anchor ofi' Cape Town, on the 
morning of the 19th, than 1 hastened ashore to make the best of 
the time the ship remained to fill up her water, and procure 
stores. Dr. Phiilips, the well-known and venerable superintend- 
ent of the London JMissionary Society's stations in South Africa, 
had not yet returned from his visit to England ; but I found Mrs. 
P. abundantly able to su])i)ly his place. Her complete knowl- 
edge of the details of every stalion, and striking energy of char- 
acter, charmed me exceedingly. Making me welcome to her 
home, she patiently suffered herself to be plied with questions, 
and, on my i-etiring for the night, furnished documents to read, 
calculated to be highly useful to me as a manager of missionary 
operations. 

Rev. Mr. Locke, ftlr. P.'s substitute, gave me his time when 
Mrs. P. could not, so that, whether walking or sitting, my pencil 
had no rest. Long practice has served to stereotype my ques- 
tions, so that when I fall among such as can inform, the work of 
gathering facts, dates, and numbers, is plain, if not easy. 

Few places can be more beautifully situated than Cape Town. 
1 made a drawing from the ship ; but the expense of this work is 
already so great as to forbid its being engraved. The city occu- 
pies a gentle acclivity, on the east side of the bay ; scattered 
villas are sprinkled over the adjacent shores ; and in the rear, 
upon moderate hills, are pleasant country seats, embosomed 
among vineyards and fruit-trees. Behind all, distant but a mile, 
is the steep wall-like front of Table Mountain, rising nearly four 
thousand feet, almost perpendicularly, without a tree, or scarcely 
a shrub, to hide the frowning rocks. In tlie placid hay about 
twenty vessels were lying at anchor, of wliich no less thnn eight 
were American. There is a small fort, and some other defences ; 
but none wliich would be of any avail against an enemy, which 
might land elsewhere, and take these batteries in the rear. 

The streets of the city are regularly laid out, and well built, 
but nfUTOW. The population is about twenty-five thousand ; the 
great majority of which are negroes and midattoes. These 
swai'm about the town ; their wretched trousers and jackets 



350 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 

contrasting very disadvantageously with the graceful and snow- 
white drapery of servants in India. 

It is tlie middle of January, (1838,) and here, the height of 
summer. The markets abound with grapes, peaches, aj)ricots, 
api>les, plums, figs, oranges, lemons, strawberries, mulberries, 
melons, &c., at very low rates. Our supply of oranges, from 
China, had just run out ; so that such an opportunity of rejjla- 
cing our antiscorbutic luxuries was most welcome. The vine- 
yards are not trellised like the Italian, or tied to stakes like 
the German, but suffered to grow alone, like currant bushes. 
This plan is probably necessary, on account of the fierce winds 
which often prevail, but, as it suffers many of the grapes to He 
on the ground, is ])erhaps the cause of the earthy taste of the 
common Cape wines. 

There are at Cape Town two Episcopal ministers, four Dutch, 
two Lutheran, one Scotch, two Independent, two Methodist, 
one supported by the South African Missionary Society, and 
four engaged wholly or partially in schools or secular business ; 
making eighteen. The following list of charitable and religious 
institutions, though perhaps incomplete, will show that Christians 
here are not unmindful of the calls of enlightened philanthropy: 
Society for promoting Christian Knowledge ; South African Mis- 
sionary Society, instituted 1799 ; Auxiliary London Missionary 
Society; Auxiliary Wesleyan Missionary Society; Bil)Ie Union, 
instituted 1818 ; Infant School Society, with three schools ; three 
schools on the British system ; Ladies' Benevolent Society ; Tract 
and Book Society ; Orphan Asylum ; Sick and Burial Society ; 
Widows' and Old Women's Society ; School of Industry for 
girls ; and ten Sunday schools containing about fifteen hundred 
scholars. 

Had the Dutch, who settled this colony nearly two himdrcd 
years ago, been as zealous for the conversion of the natives, as 
they were for the introduction of their language, there would, no 
doubt, have been a far different state of things among that part 
of the population. But though Dutch is now the vernacidar of all 
the negroes in this part of the continent, Christianity is the re- 
ligion of comparatively few ; while more than nine thousand 
have adopted the faith of the false prophet. Indeed, it is af- 
firmed, that they rather preferred tliat the Hottentots should 
become Mussulmans ; being unwilling that their slaves should 
acquire such a ground of familiarity as would be produced by a 
common Christianity ! Even now, a large number of blacka 
annually go over to Mahometanism. 



ST. HELENA FALSE ALARM. 351 

On leaving the Cjipe of Good Hope, a delightful breeze from the 
south-east brouglit us at once into the regular trade-wind, so tliat 
we scarcely started tack or sheet, till off" St. Helena, on the 31st 
of January. Squalls and calms, produced by the i)roximity of 
this lofty island, kept us near it for twenty-four hours; making us 
familiar with its gloomy outline, and allowing us leisure to j)hi- 
losophize on the fate of bloody men. Heavy clouds lowered on 
its sunnnits, while dreariness and solitude seemed the only 
tenants of its worthless valleys. May ambitious rulers never 
forget the impressive lesson of St. Helena's exiled emjjeror! 
We left the island to the westward, and, catching "the trade" 
again, reached the equator in about twenty days. He who 
most dislikes the sea, must love it in the south-east trade-wind. 
Such skies, such air, such gentle waters, such quiet in the ship, 
such glorious nights, such security from all shoals and coasts, 
and such steady progress, make up the very poetry of life upon 
tlie sea. 

The north-east trade met us south of the line, blowing with 
double the force of the other. Its haziness prevented mj' noticing 
at what latitude the Magellan clouds ceased to be visible. We 
however saw them till within two or three degrees of the 
equator. They appeared then about 15° above the horizon. 
Since leaving the Cai)e, the thermometer has ranged about 80° 
to 85° in the cabin. 

For a number of days after crossing the line, we noticed fine 
yellowish sand, deposited on every part of the vessel and rigging. 
It could be wiped from the decks, like dust from a table. This, 
of course, was from the coast of Africa, above a thousand miles 
distant! I am told this phenomenon is not uncommon, but do 
not recollect to have seen it noticed in books. 

In the latitude of the West Indies, a suspicious looking 
schooner came in sight, and leaving her course, boarded a vessel 
a few miles ahead. Soon after, she bore for another, chang- 
ing her course again, came down upon us, and ranged alongside 
at musket-shot distance. She carried the flag of Donna Maria, 
was of the fastest model, too small to be engaged in commerce, 
and had other indications of being a pirate. It seemed evident, 
too, she had no particular course, for she had been boxing about 
since day-light. To be captmed, and perhaps murdered, was 
now a reasonable expectation ; and I began to think this book 
would never see the light. After sailing with us a while before 
the wind, keeping us in constant ex])ectiition ofa shot, she sheared 
to, and an officer in half-uuitbrm hailed us, saying, " With your 



352 A SLAVER. 

leave, we will come on board." Of course, it was of no use to 
resist, and our captain sulkily hauled up Lis courses. We wei'e 
somewhat relieved l)y seeing lier boat shove off' witli but a small 
crew. Our ladder and man-ropes were put over the side, and 
presently a ruffian-looking man, with side arms, stood upon our 
deck. We stood ready to learn our fate ; but lie seemed in no 
hurry to announce it. However, after looking about at every 
thing, and asking our cargo, destination, &c., he settled our sur- 
mises by saying that he wished merely to know his longitude ! 

The schooner was a slaver, recently captured off" Jamaica, by 
a British cruiser; and this personage was prize-master. The 
slaves had been a])prenticed on the island by government, as is 
the custom in such cases, and the vessel was on her way to 
Sierra Leone, to be condemned ; having tlie late captain and 
one or two of the crew on board. Being destitute of a chro- 
nometer, he took this opportunity to ascertain his position, by 
comparing the reckoning of the vessels in sight. The vessel 
was about eighty tons' burden, (not so large as many of our river 
sloops,) and when taken, had on board three hundred and twenty- 
six slaves! Between her decks was but two feet four inches, 
so that the unhappy negroes could scarcely sit upright. They 
were sto^ved in a solid mass, in a sitting posture, amidst filth 
and stench so horrid, that the place was insupportable for days 
after they were removed. These vessels are generally fitted out 
at Havana, and, if they escape capture one voyage out of four, the 
profits are abundajit. As the officers and crew are not punished, 
much less the merchant, there is no want of too'sfor this uifernal 
business. As soon as the vessel is condemned at Sierra Leone, 
she is sold by auction, and, not being wanted there, the captain 
himself becomes the ])urchaser, and with all Ins irons, gratings, 
and other ap])uratus, already on board, ])asses down the coast, 
takes in another cargo, and tries his chance again. 

Lord Brougham has affirmed, in a late speech in parliament, 
that one hundred and eighty-five slave vessels were fitted out 
from Havana in the year 18;3.^; and that in 1836, the number of 
slaves imported into that single city, exceeded twenty-eight 
thousand! In the month of December, 1836, two vessels arrived 
at Rio Janeiro, one of which brought five hundred slaves, and 
tlie other seven hundred and eighty! The average import of 
slaves into Rio is about fifty-thi'ee thousand! In 1837, there 
were imported into one dly of Brazil forty-five thousand slaves! 
It has been recently published, without contradiction, that nearly 
two hundred slave voyages are made from Cuba every year, 



KETURN TO THE UiMTED STATES. 353 

and that many of these are owned l)y Englislmien and Ameri- 
cans. It is to he feared that this awful husuiess is now con- 
ducted ahnost as extensively as at any former period. 

On the 25th of March, 1838, the shores of my native country 
once more received me, having made the voyage in a hundred 
and twenty days, witliout disaster. I have abstained from speak- 
ing of dangers, escapes, hardships, and inconveniences, ex- 
cept where they miglit make the reader better acquainted 
with the country or people through which I was passing ; but 
an open acknowledgment is now due to the Father of mercies, 
and to my friends, whose prayers were not intermitted. In the 
East, opportunities of going from port to port are often not to 
be had for months ; yet I was never hurried from any j>lace till 
my work was done, nor in a single instance detained uselessly. 
During an absence from the United States of two years and 
a halt, I made nineteen voyages by sea, (which consumed four 
hundred and sixty-four days,) Iburteen voyages by rivers, and 
a land journey of five hundred miles, besides smaller trips 
by land and water. The whole distance travelled, including 
actual courses at sea, is somewhat more than fifty-three thousand 
miles. In all these wanderings, often in dangerous and ill-fitted 
vessels, and regions uidiealthy, or infested with robbers, I was 
never hurt nor molested ; nor was any person hurt or taken sick 
where I was. In one of Ihese journeys, it will be recollected, 1 
was supposed to be armed with a pair of horse pistols, for which 
I afterward found I had no bullets. On all other occasions, I 
went without the semblance of a weapon, except a cane. 

The entire expense of my mission, including voyages out and 
home, presents to chiefs, i)urchase of curiosities for missionary 
rooms, and salary, amounts to about five thousand dollars — • 
scarcely half of the sum I had suj»poscd would be requisite. 
Part of this may be regarded as falling within the usual ex- 
penses of the Board, as on all occasions I acted the ])art of a 
missionary, by preaching through interpreters, conducting the 
services of native assistants, and distributing Christian books. 
I indulge a hope that the profits of these volumes received by 
the Society will repay, in part, the cost of tlie tour. 

The wide field gone over in my weary way is now traced ; 

and thousands of fiicts concerning it are fairly spread out. 3Iuch 

more remains unsaid ; but nothing is kept back, which would 

materially alter the nature of the reader's impiessions. Deeply 

13* 



354 REMARKS. 

conscious of tlie imperfections winch liave attended tlie dis- 
charge of this engagement, I am, nevertheless, cheered by llie 
fullest conviction that such an agency was essential to the vvelliire 
and vigor of the mission ; that no part of my life has so eftectually 
l)romoted the blessed cause ibr which alone it is desirahle to 
live; and that the divine presence and aid were never more 
manifestly vouchsafed upon anj' of my endeavors. 

It only remains for me to declare my deep and solemn convic- 
tion that the missionary enterprise is of God. All I have seen, 
read, and heard, has served to impress me more and more with 
the rectitude, practicability, and usefidness of the work. Our 
duty, as revealed in Scripture, is illustrated and urged in evei-y 
part of the field. Tlie missionaries, as a body, are holy and dili- 
gent men. I have satisfied myself that the translations are con- 
tinually improving ; that the tracts are orthodox and scriptural ; 
and that a large part of tlieiu are intelligible to the natives. 
Evidences of tlie divine favor are visible; and are numerated iu 
a subsequent cha])ter, though not completely, yet so abundantly, 
as that unprejudiced Christians must deem them encouraging. 

The personal examination of numerous missionary stations in 
the East, (some of them the seat of several distinct bodies of 
missionaries ;) a minute knowledge of many adjacent ones ; a per- 
sonal acquaintance with nearly ninety ordained missionaries — 
Episcopalian, Lutheran, Scotch, Presbyterian, Wesleyan, Lide- 
pendent. Congregational, and Baptist, beside wives, assistants, 
and native hel])ers; visits to schools and the houses of converts; 
seeing many heathen in their native state ; Avitnessing much 
missionary labor ; attending committees, conferences, prayer- 
meetings, and catechisings ; and almost confining my reading to 
this subject for three years, — has satisfied me that the measure 
of missionary success is ef[ual to just expectations. The partic- 
ular grounds of this decision will be found briefly spread out in 
Chapter I. Part IV. 

Opportunities of usefulness are more extended than ever 
before. Tbere are not only more presses and more missiona- 
ries, but better tracts ; more of the Scriptures are translated ; 
more of our brethren understand the languages where they are ; 
the native assistants know more of the plan of salvation; and the 
schools are better conducted. 

Our incentives to increased action are very strong. Many 
young men of great pronfise, who have devoted themselves to 
missionary work, are deterred from ])resenting themselves to 
the societies, because of the uncertainty when they can be sent 



RETURN TO THE UAITED STATES. 3^5 

out, if at all. TJiis oiiijlit very seriously to engage tlic alleiuiou 
of the churches. Men are preiJared and wihing o go ; and the 
churcli does not sup)>ly the means. In the mean time, promising 
fields remain unoccupied ; a proper division of labor is not et- 
lected at existing stations ; and at some points the vvhoie labor 
and exiMjnse, and the entire services of some missionaries, are In 
danger of being lost, fur want of men to take tiie place of those 
now engaged, in case of sickness or death. In sojue instances, 
there is lor a whole nation but one missionary. 

Our visible encouragements are greater than at any former 
pei'iod. The number of converts within the year 1837, con- 
nected with missions from the United States, exceeds the whole 
number of converts, during the first twenty years of the existence 
of missionary operations ! In the same missions, religious truth 
is now being printed in nearly sixty languages, and at the rate 
of millions of pages per annum. 

Reader, could you have stood with me over the graves of 
Swartz, Carey, Boardman, or Heber, or could you stand beside the 
departing ship, where weeping parents give up dear children to 
many hardships, and to be seen no more, how would your sacri- 
fices appear in the comparison ? What are you doing for the 
spread of Christianity which compares with these; or with tire 
widow's mite, which was "all her living"? O, examine this 
matter. The blood of the heathen may be on your soul. Have 
you properly satisfied j'oiirself that it Ij not your duty to go to the 
heathen') Are you sure you are not required to give more to this 
cause ? If it be the duty of some to go abroad, and of others to 
give up their sons and daughters, what ought you to Ao? Must 
the whole body of Christians do their duty ? or will the sei-vices 
of a part excuse the remainder .' Either those who go on mis- 
sions are egregiously misled, and might without guilt have re- 
mained at home, enjoying all the sweets of civilized society, 
religious privileges, and fannly intercourse ; or you are fatally 
deluded in sujjposing that you acquit yourselves of all obligation 
by paying a paltry dollar or two, per annum or per month. What 
shall be said, then, of those who do not contribute towards spread- 
ing the knowledge of God and truth among the nations, so much 
as the price of a gewgaw, or a ribbon, in a whole year ? O Lord, 
lay not this sin to thy people's charge ! Let thy church arise 
and sliine, that the Gentiles may come to her light, and kings 
to the brightness of her rising. 



PART IV. 
A PRACTICAL VIEW OF MODERN MISSIONS. 



CHAPTER I. 

ON THE MEASURE OF SUCCESS WHICH HAS ATTENDED 
MODERN MISSIONS. 

Introduction. — I. The Number of Missionaries. — H. The Kind of Labor 
performed : Preparatory ; Collateral ; Additional j Erroneous. — IH. Dis- 
advantages of Modern Missionaries : Imperfect Knowledg-e of the Lan- 
guage ; Poverty of the Languages themselves ; Want of Familiarity with 
the Religion and People; Degraded State of the Natives; Inability to live 
as they live ; Being Foreigners; The Structure of Society ; The prevailing 
Philosophy ; The Presence of nominal Christians ; Popery. — IV. Efforts 
which do not reach the Field. — V. The Amount accomplished : A large 
Force in the Field ; Impediments removed ; Translations made ; Lan- 
guages reduced to Writing ; GeneraJ Literature imparted ; Tracts written ; 
Grammars, Dictionaries, and other Helps prepared ; Immense Distribution 
of Bibles and Tracts; Mechanical Facilities created ; Schools established, 
and Youth already educated ; Blessings of Christian Morality diffused ; 
Idolatry in some Places shaken ; Effects on Europeans abroad ; Actual 
Conversions. — VI. Effects on the Churches at Home — Remarks. 

Many of the best friends of missions avow feelings of disap- 
pointment, ill regard to the measure of success which has at- 
tended the enterprise. Considering the great efforts which have 
been made, they are ready to infer either tiiat there is some radi- 
cal error in the mode of operation, or tliat " the set time" to 
bring in tlie iieatlien, has not yet come. At this we can scarcely 
wonder, when we consider the misstatements which are current, 
and the prevalent deficiency of information on this subject, even 
among I'eligious persons, for want of reading missionary peri- 
odicals. 

Those who stand aloof from the work, are still more disposed 
to regard it as a failure. Some are not backward to charge those 
who persist, with fanaticism and folly ; and a few go so far as to 
brand them with chicanery and corruption, and to declare their 
belief that most of the fimds contributed for missions, are re- 
tained by the hands through which they pass. 

On the other hand, there are those who dwell always on ani- 
mating prognostics and local successes. Reluctant to contem- 
plate discouraging circumstances, they anxiously exclude such 



"^ li-om priiitfd Uacls ~~ 

/ / 

<3ta+C^ ■31't«t'tf"!lt ^f?^;,-3 CStatfT fl-tJT fjr-4fJt3 ^pflTT, -^5' sfjl 

iicv^m"?'. c^oopScG^S cnd£§^ cooooo^coggoe^S god 

.if!a/nesi> in />'i'm*t/i trthTs . 

Hawaclhaii hua, an iiiaiiulior aoot liihonte 
i|^ < [n3nEiiciia5DC\a|pii§^^nnmcn2 

■ ''^ ^. ^^-j -1^ r«<=.-^ --^- ^^-> 
'"'' '"'"""" iw\m (KJi in ifTiiui fui jn \{(sm usi ai^ >][vo • 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 357 

details from what they say or jiubhsh, and at montlily concerts 
of prayer, or other public meetings, create an impression that the 
work is well nigh done, at least in some places. There is thus 
a danger of making contributions to missions the fruit rather of 
temporary emotion than habitual principle, and of graduating 
the measure of our duty more by the amount of success than 
the distinctness of injunction. And when, in a course of years, 
the expected results are not realized, there is a proiieness to 
dejection and lassitude. 

The writer cannot join with those whose tone is chiefly that 
of exultation. But he is persuaded that missions have succeeded, 
to a degree fully equal to the amount and kind of labor bestowed, 
and presents the following considerations to sustain this opinion. 

Before proceeding to measure the absolute magnitude of what 
has been accomplished, it is necessary to consider the true 
amount of means employed, and the exact manner in which they 
have been applied. 

I. Tke numher of missionaries, and the amount of time and energy 
they have had to bestow on their ivork. 

1. The English Baptist Missionai^ Society was formed in 1792 ; 
the London Missionary Society in 1795; the Scotch Missionary 
Society in 179G; the Church Missionary Society in 1800; the 
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 
1810 ; the Baptist Board in 1814 ; the Episcopal and the Meth- 
odist Missionary Societies in 1820. 

Of course, the first years in each of these societies produced 
very few missionaries. By a careful analysis of all the mission- 
aiy statistics within reach, it appears that in 1810, the whole 
number of stations was twenty-nine ; in 1820, fifty-seven ; and 
at the present time, about four hundred. If we allow two mis- 
sionaries to a station, it gives us, in 1810, fifty-eight ; in 1820, a 
hundred and fourteen ; and at the present time eight hundred. 
We thus perceive that we have proceeded but slowly to the 
present magnitude of our operations. One half of the present 
number of missionaries have gone out within so recent a period, 
as not yet to have acquired the languages of their people. 

2. The lives of missionaries are shorter than those of ministers 
at home ; not exceeding, probably, on an average, more than eight 
or nine years. 

3. As the highest instances of longevity are found among those 
who gave themselves chiefly to translations and English preach- 
ing, the average life of such as were devoted to the immediate 
conversion of natives is still farther lessened. 



358 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

4. All those who died before they had been in the field four 
years, are to be presumed not to have become efficient preachers. 

5. Three or four years are to be deducted from tlie brief span 
of all missionai'ies, as time spent chiefly in study. 

6. Most missions have been carried forward in regions where 
the missionaries were robbed of one fourth of their effective 
energy by climate. Combine all these considerations, and the 
absolute amount of direct efforts for the conversion of heathen 
is reduced to a very paltry sum. 

Again : The calculations which have been made on the labors 
of the wives of n)issionaries, ai-e for the most part, much too 
large. Speeches, essays, and sermons have described the public 
usefulness of females in glowing terms. It has even been declared 
that on this account, "almost all missionaries of the Protes- 
tant churches may count for two." The seclusion of women in 
certain countries, has principally given rise to this opinion, as 
they can find access to their own sex in a manner not practicable 
to their husbands. But it must be considered that only in a 
part of the field are females rigidly secluded, and then only the 
higlier classes, with which few missions have much to do. Few 
missionaries' wives have acquired the language to such an extent 
as to enable them to be useful in this way. Their opportunities 
for learning are by no means so good as those of their husbands. 
Household duties demand some time ; their minds have been 
Jess trained to the acquisition of language ; and such as have 
children are greatly put back in their studies, and hindered from 
missionary work, if ever so familiar with the language. Among 
ourselves, we do not reckon ministers' wives as so many evange- 
lists, when we compute the degi-ee to which a state or county is 
sui)plied with the means of grace. Much less can we calculate 
upon the wives of missionaries. The helps and facilities enjoyed 
by a woman at home, who essays to do public good, are not found 
among the heathen. There, few nurses or servants can be 
trusted alone with children, even for an hour; the elder ones are 
not safe away at school, but must be about the mother, and 
taught wholly by her — itself a great task, which few mothers in 
America could add to their other cares. In sickness, she is not 
aided by a circle of kind friends, but must nurse her husband, 
her child, or her scholar, day liy day, alone ; destitute even of the 
aid which servants might render, could they fully understand her 
commands or customs. At home, a minister's wife does good 
chiefly through others, by setting in motion and keej)ing up plans 
which they can execute. But not so with the missionary's wife. 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 359 

Slie has around hei- no circle of active and unencumbered sis- 
ters, to teach Sabbath schools, to form Bible classes, or to consti- 
tute societies for good objects. All she does must be carried 
on, from beginning to end, by her own individual unassisted 
energies. She must find her princij)al sphere of usefulness in 
keeping her husband whole-hearted and iiaj)py ; in being a good 
housewife ; sustaining all the domestic cares ; training up her 
children well ; furnishing her husband prudent counsel and af- 
fectionate suj)port; and setting before the heathen the sweet and 
impressive example of a well-ordered Christian family, and the 
elevated and purifying character of conjugal life, as regulated by 
the New Testament. As time and opportunity offer, she should 
diligently and thoroughly study the language. Then let her 
take every opportunity of conversing with such as come to the 
house, form a circle of acquaintance among the native females, 
and faithfully visit among them as a Christian teacher. 

Unmarried females, and such as have no children, may gen- 
erally be regarded as missionaries in the fullest sense. Some of 
these have maintained for years a course of public usefulness 
not inferior to their masculine fellow-laborers. 

n. The kind of labor ivhich has been performed. 

1. Uj) to the present period, the principal portion of missiona- 
ry labor has been preparatoiy. 

He who views the lofty column is apt to forget how great have 
been the labors of the architect beneath the surface of the earth, 
and how widely the hidden foundations spread round beneath 
his feet. So when we survey the results of missions ; most of 
the labor, though indispensable, is not now seen. Nor can any 
ins])ection of their present condition disclose the extent and 
variety of past labors. 

We need not here stop to inquire whether missionaries have 
devoted loo much time to translations, authorship, schools, secular 
business, or preaching in English. It is sufficient for the present 
argument, that the major part of our efforts have been so ex- 
pended. It is not possible to arrive at precision in regard to 
the exact proportion; but from careful inquiries, I am led to set 
down, as prejjaratory, three fourths of the work done in India, 
much more as to China and Western Asia, and somewhat less 
in most other missions. 

2. No small portion of time and energy has been spent on 
objects which may be called collateral. 

A pastor at home looks for these labors to his church, and to 



360 MEASURE OF MISSIO.VARY SUCCESS. 

benevolent societies. He has around Jiim tliose who maintain 
Sunday scliools, distribute liibles and tracts, sustain pecuniary 
agencies, hold meetings in private liouses, visit the sick, main- 
tain discipline, and [)ertbrm a nniltitude of other services, wliich 
in a foieign land devolve on the missionaiy alone. The frac- 
tion of effort, leit after making tlie deductions of the last head, 
is tlierefore to be still farther abridged, if we mean to measure 
missionaries by mhiisters at home. 

3. He has many duties additional to those of a pastor in a 
Christian land. 

In addition to all his studies and labors of a strictly missiona 
ry and evangelical character, he must erect places of worship, 
dwellings, and school-houses; emj)lo3f and oversee native assist- 
ants and catechists ; and send out agents, with Bibles and tracts. 
In the absence of physicians, friends, nurses, and trained ser- 
vants, he must be surgeon, midwife, and nurse, in his own 
family. In many cases, he must devote considerable time to the 
dispensing of medicine to the natives. Pie must be school- 
master for his own children, as well as Sundaj' school teacher, 
and perhaps superintend native schools. 

Beside this list of duties, so large as almost to seem absurd, 
he must correspond with his friends at home, the Society, and 
fellow-missionaries; keep careful money accoimts ; and maintain 
a proper intercoui-se with Europeans around him. 

4. Many missionaries have felt obliged to imitate the example 
of Carey, Marshnian, and Ward, and of the Moravians generally, in 
devoting much time to raising pecuniary resources. While the 
public was but half awake to their duty, there was much reason 
for this. There are perhaps cases now where it is proper. 
I only name it as another deduction from our computation of 
the measure of means strictly spent in converting the heathen. 

5. Much time and money have been expended erroneously, at 
least in several missions. 

Shops, houses, mills, farms, machines, implements, fonts of 
type, and books, have been made unwisely, and relinquished ; or 
made at too great a cost. Tlie temporal affaii's of the people have 
received too much attention. Periodical publications have en- 
trenched on higher duties ; translations have in some cases been 
made prematurely ; and in others great labor has been bestowed 
in making revisions, which prove not to be imjjrovements. 

All this was to be expected. In labors not expressly patterned 
in the New Testament, we have no teacher but experience, 
whose instructions are always ccstly. No reasonable man could 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 3(31 

expect this item to be less than it is. Happily the pressure 
of such ex[)enses has passed a\vay with the period of our 
inex[)erience. 

III. We will now glance at the disadvantages under which the 
best and purest missionary labor is ezaied. 

The bigotry, superstition, and sensuality of the heathen, their 
want of early training in the proper theory of religion, the ab- 
sence of a correct moral sense, and similar disadvantages of 
great magnitude, not felt by ministers in a Christian land, will 
not be insisted upon ; because they equally impeded the 
aposdes, who nevertheless had great success. 1 intend only to 
name those wliich are peculiar to modern missionaries. 

1. An imperfect knowledge of the language of the people. 

Scarcely one missionary in twenty has become able to preach 
with entire fluency, and probably never one had such a knowl- 
edge of the language as insj)iration gave. A great amount of 
preaching has been done through interpreters, and these often 
unconverted heathen, who c -uld not give full force to themes 
they did not comprehend. Few can acquire such mastery of a 
foreign tongue, as to express their thoughts with the glow and 
intensity of a native, even when the idiom and structure of the 
language is thoroughly understoo<l. 

An experienced missionary in Bengal assured me, that on an 
average, not one half of the sermons of missionaries who under- 
take to preach is understood. Dr. Carey, in a letter of August, 
1809, states that after, by years of study, he thought he had fully 
mastered the Bengalee, and had then preached it two full years, 
he discovered that he was not understood 1 Yet Dr. C.'s teachers 
flattered liim that he was understood perfectly. This is a very 
conimon deception of pundits and moonshees. In the opinion 
of one of the most experienced missionaries in the Madras 
presidency, not one missionary in ten, out of those who live the 
longest, ever gets the language so as to be generally understood, 
except when declaring the simplest truths. This is a difficulty 
not to be removed. Merchants and traders may easily acquire 
the vocabulary of traffic and social life, and so do missionaries. 
They may go further, and be able to read or understand literary 
and historical subjects. But to have the ready command of 
words, on abstract theological subjects, and all the nice shades 
of meaning requisite to discuss accurately mental and moral 
subjects, can only be the work of many years, of intense study 
and great practice. 
16 



3G2 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

2. There is a still greater difficulty in the poverty of the Ian 
guages themselves. 

For terms which are of primary imjjortance in religious dis- 
course, words must often be used which are either unmeaning, 
or foreign to the purpose, or inaccurate. It is not easy to ex- 
hibit this difficulty in its true magnitude, to such as have not 
mixed with heathen. A i'ow examples may, however, make the 
argument intelligible. Words equivalent to God, Lord, &r., 
must, in various languages, be those which the heathen apjily 
to their idols ; for there are no others. In Tamul, the word 
pdvum (sin) signifies only "exposure to evil ;" or simply "evil ;" 
whether natural or moral ; and may be applied to a beast as well 
as a man. The word padesuttam (holiness) means " clearness." 
Regeneration is understood by a Hindu or Boodhist to mean 
" another birth " in this world, or " transmigration." The pur 
poses of God they understand to be " fate." The word used in 
Bengalee for holy, (d'harnia) sometimes means "merit" acquired 
by acts of religious worship, and sometimes "that which is 
agreeable to rule or custom." When the compound word Hob/ 
Ghost is translated, it becomes " Spirit of rule," or some phrase 
not more intelligible. In the Episcopal Liturgy in Bengalee, it is 
rendered " Sjnrit of existence," (sadatma ;) and Mr. Yates, in his 
new version of the Scriptures, uses the word pabitru, " clean." 
This last, while it avoids the hazard of conveying a wrong idea, 
and seems to be the best rendering, is yet evidently imperfect. 
In Siamese, the word most used for sin (tot) means either "guilt," 
or the "punishment of guilt," or simply "exposure to punisli- 
ment." The best word the missionaries can get for holy, is 
boresid, "purified," when people are spoken of; and saks't, 
"or Spirit having power because of sanctity," when the Holy 
Ghost is meant. There is no Siamese word equivalent to repent ; 
and a phrase is used signifying "to establish the mind anew," or 
" make new resolves." In Burman, there is no term equivalent 
to our heaven, and a word meaning " sky," or more yjroperly 
" space," is used ; nor any word for angel, and the rendering of that 
term has to be " sky-messenger ; " nor any word for condemn, ex- 
cept the circumlocution "decide according to demerit, or sin;" 
nor any word for conscience, tlianlc, &c. &c. I might add scores 
of such cases, given me by missionaries. There is scarcely a 
theological term not subject to this difficulty. 

For a mu'titude of our terms there is no word at all. Among 
these are not only theological terms, such as sanctification, gos- 
pel, evangelist, church, atonement, devil, &c., but the names of 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 3g3 

-rt.plea»*iit8, animals, customs, clotliing, and many other things, 
uX wiikii ignorant and remote tribes have never heard, and lor 
whicn «niue new terms are obliged to be coined. 

Let a man imagiiie how he would be embarrassed in reading a 
Oook, or he^riug a discourse, in which he constanlly met with 
Gi'eek or Aiabic terms, and words used in a sense ditierijig 
more or less Irom that in whicli lie understands them, and these 
oilen the principal terms in the sentence ; and he may Ibrm some 
conception of tins ditiiculty. Even the native assistant, preaching 
111 his mother Iwigue, is not properly miderstood ; for he must 
use these terms!. 

3. Want of familiarity with the system and sacred books to 
be encountered, and with national prejudices and modes of 
thinking. 

For exposing with freedom, and attacking with power, a pop- 
ular belief, tiiese are eminent advantages. Hence, in part, the 
superior success of native preachers. The apostles were native 
preachers, almost wherever tliey went ; and we see how largely 
they used their intimate knowledge of the national religion and 
habits of thinkmg, not only in dis]Jutations, but in formal dis- 
courses and epistles. Many years must elapse before a mis- 
sionary can attain this power ; and then only by the wearisome 
perusal of many volumes of disgusting legends, as well as con- 
tact widi natives in many ways, and for a long period. 

4. The riideiiess and ignorance of the people sought to be 
reclaimed. 

Idolatry tends steadily downward; and eighteen centuries 
have served to degrade the heathen far below the latest and most 
corrupt Gieeka and Romans. When mankind began to fall 
away from the iiving God, there remained some knowledge of 
tlie proper attributes of Deity, and a comparative nob'eness and 
jjurity in the human mind. But the objects of worship, the rites 
enjoined, and llie character of the people, steadily sunk lower 
and lower. Hence all nations refer to past ages, as having 
greater purity and happiness tlian the present. Iniquitous ora- 
cles, abused asylums, horrid bacchanalia, and human sacrifices, 
were known, evi;n in Greece and Rome, only to later generations. 
With all these abominations, they possessed no contenqitible 
amount of arts, sciences, literature, and poetry. Syria, Mace- 
donia, Greece, Italy, and Northern Africa, forming the field of the 
first missions, were the centre of civilization and intelligence. 
The wide intercommunication maintained by travelling philoso- 
phers and maiching armies, gave impulse to intellect, and dis- 



364 MEASURE OF MISSIOx\ART SUCCESS. 

geminated knowledge. The Roman, the Greek, the Jew, the 
Egyptian, was iar less of a brute, than the savage or semi-civ- 
ilized object of our jjliilanthro|)y. 

For a long period belbre the birth of Christ, a leaven of con- 
tempt lor pagan rites had been diflVised by Pythagoras, Socrates, 
Plato, Aristotle, and others. Every century bronghl forth some 
such writers, and increased the effect of the former works. 
Socrates, Lj'curgus, Demosthenes, and otliers, had by their 
orations stirred up the stagnation of the public mind. Euclid, 
Zeno, Epicurus, Apollonius, Archimedes, and Eratosthenes, led 
the select few to a noble expansion and activity of the intel- 
lectual powers. Afterward came the satires and exj)osnres of 
Horace, Lucian, and Juvenal, turning a strong tide of ridicule 
upon the prevailing mythology. To quote more names might 
seem pedantic ; but there was then scarcely a department of 
learning without writers which, to this very day, maintain not 
only a place among our studies, but admiration and utility. 
Poetry, philosophy, history, eloquence, tragedy, mathematics, 
geogra])hy, botany, medicine, and morals, were all cultivated. 
Such was the state of mankind when Cln-ist came ; and while it 
would have allowed a new system of superstition or en-or little 
chance of prevalence, it made a happy preparation for Chris- 
tianity. Not, indeed, that any of the philosophy agreed with it ; 
or that any of the philosophers adopted it. "The wisdom of 
this world," then as now, deemed the cross " foolishness." But 
the people were traiiud to think^ and both Jews and pagans were 
capable of examining, and disposed to understand, the nature of 
the new religion. 

The nations among whom missions are now conducted, are in 
general the reverse of all this. With them the human intellect 
has for ages been at a stand. Improvements in any thing are 
not imagined. Without valuable books, without a knowledge of 
other countries, without foreign commerce, without distant con- 
quest, without the strife of theology, without j)olitical freedom, 
without public spirit, — what is left for them, but listlessness, 
ignorance, and pride ? Such of them as attempt study, learn 
only falsehood and folly ; so that the more they learn, the less 
they know. Their history, chronology, geography, physics, as- 
tronomy) medicine, and theology, are so utterly wrong, that to 
fill the mind with them is worse than vacuity. This is true of 
the mod civilized heathen of this day ; and of many parts of the 
missionary field, a much stronger picture might be drawn. 
Such indurated ignorance is incompai-ably worse to deal with 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 3Q5 

than fine reasonings and false philosophy. What can arguuieut 
do, if not understood ? The edge of truth itself is turned by 
unpenetrable dulness. 

The depreciation of morals, is as great as that of intellect. 
We look in vain even for Spartan or Roman virtue. Except 
pei-ha])s among the Cretans, it is hardly probable that the first 
l)reachers any where encountered such a spirit of falsehood and 
deceit as distinguish the heathen now. Truth is utterly wanting. 
Man lias no confidence in man. The morality is not only defec- 
tive, it is perverted. Killing a cow or an insect, is more shocking 
than the murder of an enemy : lying for a brahmin is a virtue j 
stealing for real want is no sin : a few ceremonies or offer- 
ings expiate all crimes. Transmigration abolishes identity ; lor, 
if perfectly unconscious in one state of existence, of all that 
transpired in previous ones, identity is virtually lost. Sin is re- 
duced to a trifle, the conscience rendered invulnerable, generous 
sentiments extinguished, and the very presence and exhortations 
of the missionary engender a suspicion destructive to his suc- 
cess. His reasons for coming are not credited ; and the fear of 
political treachery is added to a detestation of his creed. The 
best supposition they can make, is that he is seeking religious 
merit, according to his own system, and careful not so much for 
their conversion, as for his personal benefit in a future state. 

5. Liability to live as the people live. 

Except at a few points, the manners and customs are such that 
a missionary cannot adopt them without disadvantage. It has 
often been tried, to a greater or less degree ; but always relin- 
quished, for numerous good reasons which I cannot here stop to 
adduce. In some missions, the health and even the life of a 
missionary require him to live in a better house, and more expen- 
sively than the chiefs, or perhaps the king. The consequent 
evils may be partly conceived, by considering the effect with us 
of a minister's living in a style superior to that of his richest 
hearers, without having any dependence on them for support. 
It is not the question here whether this evil may not be palliated 
in some places. It has existed as a disadvantage in many in- 
stances, and in many must probably always so remain. 

6. The world is not now under a single government. The 
apostles were evei7 where fellow-subjects ; for the stupendous 
power of Rome presided over the known world. But the mis- 
sionary is now a foreigner, living in foreign modes, hold- 
ing his connections with foreign powers, and endeavoring to 
introduce a foreign religion. In one pai-t of the field, he is 



366 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

either wondered at as a superior being, or feared as a political 
agent ; and in the other, despised as coming from some barbarous 
island on the confines of creation. To be either a Roman or a 
Jew, secured to the first preachers a fraternity wherever they 
went. Our missionary fintls none, till, by the blessing of God, 
he makes it. From some countries he is kept aloof by inexora- 
ble prohibitions ; in some, his life is unsafe ; in some, official ob- 
structions are thrown in his way, so as almost to discourage 
effort ; and in others, though ])rotected by Christian riders, he is 
almost precluded Irom usefulness by the influence of their 
example, 

7. The structure of society. 

At first, Christians could be tolerated even " in Csesar's house- 
hold," and retain offices, civil and military. The persecu- 
tions were not so much by the people as the government, and 
the converts could prosecute their callings, whether as tanners, 
tent-makers, fishermen, or centurions. Now, the adamantine 
barrier of caste fences off into innumerable sections the two 
hundred millions of India ; while all, from the highest to the 
lowest, unite against Christianity. The convert becomes an 
outcast, in such a sense of that word as E\nopeans cannot con- 
ceive. He is not only deprived of property, but torn from wife 
and children, and abandoned, without the means of subsistence. 
Unless the missionary devise a mode of subsistence for him, he 
must starve. In addition to other evils, this state of tilings tends 
to keep off all who have property to lose, and draw together 
mendicants, idlers, and criminals, to profess Christianity for 
temporal ends. 

Among 3Iahometans, Boodhists, and other pagans, to become 
a Christian entails most of these trials, though in other forms. 
The convert is cast out as evil. His relations deny him, his busi- 
ness fails, his children are a by-word, his rulers are displeased, 
and his life endangered. 

Among still ruder nations, the distinction of tribes cuts up 
the human fiimily into small, insulated portions, denying to each 
other common kindnesses. After spending many years to ac- 
quire a language, there are but a few thousands to whom it can 
be the medium of truth. Wars, wanderings, extreme poverty, 
and desperate degradation, seem to preclude the very hope of 
success. 

8. The apostles were not every where met by a system of 
natural philosophy which directly contradicted all their teachings. 

Wherever Christianity now goes, a new system of geography 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 367 

and astronomy must be adopted. It cannot be said that the 
missionary may pass by this topic, and only preach Clnist cruci- 
fied. His liearers will not let him jiass it by. The country he 
professes to have left, cannot exist by their system. The Shaster 
and the Bcdagat nuist fall, if his sjstem be true. He will be at- 
tacked upon it. It will be regarded as a part of his religious 
belief; and he must clear away their cosmogony, before he can 
build his faith. 

With the few who can be so far educated as to understand 
and receive the C'opernican system, this difficulty is converted 
into a facility. Such are at least rendered unbelievers in their 
own religion. But tlie mass of the people will long remain in 
the old belief, and as Christianity cannot wait to be preceded by 
schools, missionaries must meet this difficulty in all its strength. 

9. The presence of nominally Christian countrymen. 

These are now found almost every where ; and too many of 
them, by their ungodly lives, present to the uudistinguishing 
heathen a continual ground of objection. Their lewdness, ex- 
tortions, oppressions, riotous living, desecration of the Sabbath, 
neglect of sacred things, direct opposition, and secret obstructions, 
wring the soul of the missionary, fill his way with thorns, and 
tend to nullify his greatest exertions. 

Where Christian governments have borne rule, and where his 
own life has been most secure, he lias found those very govern- 
ments arrayed against his success. When Buchanan would 
have given forth information touching the abominations of Hin- 
duism, not a journal in Calcutta dared publish his communica- 
tions ! When he made them from the i)ulpit, liis friends were 
not allowed to publish the sermons. When he returned to Eng- 
land, and published these tilings, his statements were denied, 
and his character assailed. The East India Comi>any long 
opposed the introduction of missionaries, or kept them under a 
surveillance which defeated their object. Had not the Danish 
settlement at Serampore afforded an asylum, till an experiment 
was made, evincive of the political harndessness of evangelical 
labors among the natives, it is doubtful whether India would 
have been opened to this day. It is only necessary to refer to 
the periodical accounts, to the Calcutta newspaj)ers, and to the 
occasional i)amphlets of that time, to show how wilfully and 
effectively the messengers of mercy were hindered, for many 
■years ; and how large deductions ought to be made, on this ac- 
count, from the fruits which might otherwise have been pro- 
duced. Though the Lidian government no longer exerts a 



368 MEASURE OF BIISS10>'ARY SUCCESS. 

direct opposition to missionaries, it does many things, some of 
wliicli have been named in a previous chapter, to sustain pagan- 
ism and Mahometanisni througliout its donjinions. 

The Dutch government has been even more inimical, and still 
maintains its hostility. When Mr. Bruckner, after many years' 
labor, had translated the New Testament into Javanese, he went 
to Serampore, and at great expense got types cast, and printed it. 
But he no sooner returned, (in 1832,) and gave away a few copies, 
than the government seized the whole edition, and placed it in 
the public stores, from whence it has never been restored. I 
could mention other facts of a similar character. Their own 
chaplains and other clergy are under such restraints, as tend to 
imllify or obstruct their labors to convert the natives. 

The Spanish and Portuguese colonial governments in India 
have avowedly opposed us from the beginning, on the ground 
of oin- Protestantism. 

At some of the Sandwich Islands, among various tribes of 
American Indians, and in many other places where no govern- 
mental opposition has been made, the influence and example 
of unprincipled men, both residents and visitors, have been most 
distressing.* 

In the most favorable aspect in which the missionaiy meets a 
Christian government, in ])agan lands, he finds it a government 
of financial rapacity and military force. The natives cannot for- 
get that the presence and ])owerof the white man, is the fruit and 
proof of their subjection and inferiority. Wherever he estab- 
lishes his fort and his flag, it is to the subversion of their political 
and civil consequence. A distinguished British writer declares, 
that with the exception of the obstacles which the impolicy of 
Europeans themselves has created against the propagation of 
their religion, there exist no others. " In every country of the East, 



* O that immoral Christians living' among idolaters, and inimical rulers, 
would consider iiow much more reprehensible they are tlian those who of old 
professed to be his people, yel caused his name to be polluted among the Gen- 
tiles I In the days of Ezekiel, " They were dispersed through the couniries ; 
and when they entered unto the heathen, whither they went, tiiey profaned my 
holy name when they said, We are the people of the Lord, and are gone forth 
out of his land. The heathen shall know that I am the Lord, sailh the Lord 
God, when I shall be sanctified in you, before their ej'es." Ezek. xxxvi. 19 — 
23. In the days of Paul, it was still their reproach, " Thou that makcst thy 
boast of [possessing] the law, through breaking the law, dishonorest thou God ? 
For the name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles through you.'' Rom. 
ii. 23, 24. 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 369 

Cliristianitj' lias been introduced to the people along with the 
invariable and odious associates of unprincipled ambition and 
commercial rapacity."* Hence their expulsion from Japan, 
China, Tonquin, Cochin-China, and Camboja ; and the precari- 
ous footing of missionaries in Siam, Burmah. and other places. 
" It must be confessed that if the beauty of Christianity has not 
convinced Orientals, it is principally by reason of the bad opin- 
ion which the avarice, treachery, invasions, and tyraimy of the 
Portuguese, and some other Christians in the Lidies, have im- 
planted in theni."f 

10. The resistance made by Popeiy. 

At a large proportion of the stations, there are Papal estab- 
lishments. At these the priests always, and the people often, 
are active and imjilacable opposers. The missionary's character 
and labors are misrepresented ; his Bibles and tracts are declared 
false and pernicious ; and salvation, for him or his adherents, is 
pronounced imjiossible. 

Worse than this is the contempt and aversion which they 
create toward the Christian name. Their proselytes are seldom 
less degraded and vicious than the heathen, and sometimes 
more so. That they have not procured the exclusion of all mis- 
sionaries, as they have from China and Japan, is because they 
are not sulBciently powerful to excite the action of government. 
So far as they have ability, it is exerted to keep Protestantism 
from pagans. 

IV. 77(6 effect of much of the efforts at home does not reach the 
field abroad. 

Large sums have been spent in surveying the field, and sundry 
lives lost for want of a better acquaintance with the countries, 
climates, natives,| «Scc. 



* Ciawfurd's Indian Archipelasfo, vol. ii. book 6, chap. 4. 

t La Loubiere, Du Ro^'auine de Siam, torn. i. 

X Men of Ihe world exclaim against this ; but they'spend money and life, 
Upon mailers of infiniicly loss moment. Tliey encounter the same perils, in 
the same regions, in pursuit of wealth, science, or fame ; or perhaps, prompted 
only by curiosity. Let but the effort to discover the sources and course of the 
Niger be specified. In this one enterprise have perished Ledyard, Houghton, 
Park, Anderson, Horneman, Nichols, Roentgen, Tucker, Tudor, Cranch, 
Galway, Smith, Peddie, Kummcr, Campbell, Slockie, Toole, Denham, Clap- 
perton, Morrison, Pearce, Laing, and I know not how many more, all men 
of distinction and worth. With these have perished several hundred soldiers, 
s.;icntific attendants, servants, &c. All these lives spent to discover the course 



370 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

Large expenses, of both time and money, are incurred for 
agencies, secretarisliips, travelling, clerk-liiie, buildings, circu- 
lars, pamphlets, &c. Objections may lie against some of these 
cases, and certain details. But the main question of expediency 
and necessity remains clear. They yield no fruits in the foreign 
field, but without them a beginning could not be made. Chris- 
tians were ignorant of the vari.nis subjects involved in the un- 
dertaking. They were both to be induced to move, and to be 
t;iught how; so that the whole energies of some have been ab- 
sorbed in awakening the cooj>eration of others. For this there 
is no present remedy but in the continuance of these very ex- 
})enses.* Even now, though thousands of pam))h]ets, i-eports, 
speeches, sermons, &c., have been distributed, thousands of ad- 
dresses made, and thousands of committees and associations 
formed, there are multitudes who do not understand the move- 
ment For want of more of this sort of expense and labor, thou- 
sands of sincere Christians have not been awakened to a proper 
consideration of the enterprise ; and thousands, misjudging it, 
oppose. 

In addition to these expenses, large sums are absorbed by the 
outfit, passages, and salaries, of missionaries who die before they 
acquire the language. Very costly libraries have to be furnished 
to stations where translations are in progress. Those who 

of a river flowing through pestilent solitudes, and occupied hy barbarous 
tribes ! And for what purpose ? To convey peace and ete_rnal life to these 
benighted Africans ? No. To add a few facts to science, and peradventure, 
to open a new market for European manufactures ! The settlement of many 
colonies, the attempts to discover a north-west passage, and a score of other 
such enterprises, might be named, which have involved greater loss of life, than 
the whole missionary enterprise from the beginning. 

* This item, though large, is apt to be overrated. At an earlj' period of 
missionary operations, when the total receipts were small, and great personal 
efforts required to collect them, the proportion was greater than at present 
The average income of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign 
Missions is about ^260,000, and the avera're expenditures for agencies, salaries, 
travelling expenses of missionarj' candidates for examination, postages, rent, 
and other incidental expenses, about ^20,000, being a fraction less than 8 per 
rent. The expenditures of the Baptist Board of Foreign Missions are about 
590,000, and the home expenses ^7000, which is also a fraction less than 8 per 
cent. The proportion in other societies is, probably, about the same. Con- 
tributors ought, certainly, to feel gratified to know that they can collect their 
missionaries, place their donations abroad, and convert their money into Bibles 
and tracts, at so small a charge as eight cents on a dollar. Were the income 
of missionary societies doubled, the home charges would not be materially 
increased, as the present organizations would sufSce. 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 371 

knoAv the price of many necessary works in the learned lan- 
guages, will feel the force of this consideration. This sort of 
expense, and all those connected with setting up a printing- 
ofhce, must be renewed at every princijjal mission to be es- 
tablished. 

The outlay for societies' houses, seci'etaries, treasurers, clerks, 
&c., will not increase in proportion to increased operations. 
Once properly organized, a set of officers can as well conduct a 
hundred missions as fifty. Experience will reduce many ex- 
penses, both abroad and at home. The houses, lands, j^resses, 
types, machinery, libraries, &c., now possessed, will remain as so 
much capital. Natives will soon learn to do printing, &c., and 
the cost of manipulations be reduced. The prices of passages 
will lessen, as facilities and improvements nndtiply. In short, 
every charge between the donor and his object may be expected 
to decrease. The churches will come to the work with more 
readiness ; systematic contribution will succeed to desultory col- 
lections ; few bi-ethren will remain to be convinced and urged ; 
and the apparatus of agencies will cease to be burdensome. 

V. Let us noio look at the amount ivhich has been accomplished. 

1. Numerous and formidable impediments have been re- 
moved. 

Ignorance of the field, and of the nature of the work, have 
given way to knowledge and experience. An enti-ance and 
location among various strange nations, has been effected. The 
difficulties of many languages are overcome. Several mission- 
aries have attained, not merely a trader's fluency in the native 
tongues, but that minute and critical knowledge which is neces- 
sary to become authors, and to preach with advantage. Preju- 
dices against Christianity have been overcome, in many i)laces. 
In some, the spirit of indifference has given way to a spirit of 
inquiry ; and confidence in the missionary, and respect for the 
purity of his principles, have been created. Most missionaries 
who now go out, find brethren to welcome them, houses for their 
reception, and other facilities which do away no small amount 
of suffering, mistake, and delay. Had all our money effected 
only these preliminaries, it would not have been ill spent. 

2. A great body of missionaries and native preachers are in 
actual service. 

The reports of some societies do not distinguish between 
missionaries and assistants, printers, &c., so that it is not possible 
to state the precise number of each. It will not be far from tho 



372 MEASURE OF MISSIOXART SUCCESS. 

triitli to say tliat tliere are one thousand ordained missionaries, 
filty printers, tliree Jiundred schoolmasters and assistants, and 
some liundred native preacliers. 

Of the ordained missionaries there are in Africa one hundred 
and twenty-eight; other regions adjacent to the Mediterranean, 
fifty-three; Farther India, one hundred and sixty-eight ; Ceylon, 
twenty-eight ; Indian Arcliipelago, Australia, &c., eighty-one : 
West Indies, two hundred and three ; North American Indians, 
one hundred and eighteen. To send out one thousand mis- 
sionaries, and three iiundred and fifty printers, schoolmasters. 
&c., with their wives, at an average of three hundred dollars for 
passage, and two hundred dollars for outfit, has cost one million 
three hundred thousand dollars, to say nothing of tlie expense of 
their education and the cost of the native assistants. The labor 
of committees, correspondence, &c., in discovering, examining, 
preparing, and sending forth, this body of laborers, can only be 
aj)preciated by tJiose who liave been engaged in sucJi services. A 
large proportion of these persons has been in the field long enough 
to develop their character, and prove their suitableness. Here is. 
then, another item sufficient of itself to reward all our exertions. 

3. The Word of God, in whole or in part, has been translated 
by modern missionaries into nearly a hundred languages. 

We ought to look steadily at this fact, till its difticulties. mag- 
nitude, and importance, are in some sort perceived. Tliese 
translations, in many cases, have been made, from the original 
tongues, with vast pains in collating versions, and after extensive 
reading in the sacred writings of the natives, to gather suitable 
words, true idioms, and general propriety. 

Some of these versions have been printed in successive edi- 
tions, each revised with a labor equal to that of the first transla- 
tion. In several cases, different and independent translations 
have been made into the same language ; thus furnishing mul- 
tiplied materials for ultimately foi-ming a satisfactory and es- 
tablished version. 

Tliese versions embrace the languages of more than half the 
human family ; and some of them are among the most difficult 
in the world. 

4. A considerable number of languages have been reduced to 
writing. 

Strange sounds have been caught, orthography settled, parts 
of speech separated, and modes of construction determined. In 
doing this, it has been necessary to go into wearisome and per- 
plexing examinations of native utterance j to collect, without 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 3-73 

Iie'ps, all the words of whole lunguages; and to study deeply the 
wliole system of universal grammar, or structure of languages 
in general. 

For some of these languages characters have been invented, 
in whole or in part. In most of them a considerable number of 
the people have been already taught to read, and an introduction 
is thus made to the increase of books, elevation of intellect, and 
extension of Christianity. 

5. Missionaries have given to the heathen nearly all the useful 
literature they now enjoy. 

With a few exceptions, they have been the introducers of the 
art of printing, into all the pagan nations where it now exists. 
Even in Hindustan, there had never been a book printed, in any 
of her numerous languages, (except a Bengalee grammar, and 
one or two other works by the late Dr. Wilkins,) till the Baptist 
missionaries gave them the boon. 

It is not necessary to give specifications, to elucidate or am- 
plify this argument. Every literary man, and every reader of 
missionary intelligence, will at once think of various countries, 
where the facts exist, on which it is founded ; and will perceive 
that this fruit of missions, though not directly evangelical, is 
highly important.* 

(j. Tracts, and pi-actical works, have been produced in consid- 
erable variety. 

In the Bengalee alone, there are seventy-f.ve tracts, beside 
Doddridge's Rise and Progress, Baxter's Call, Pilgrim's Progress, 
Janeway's Token, Evidences of Christianity, Commentaries on 
Mark and Romans, Young Henry, and some others. The Cal- 
cutta Tract Society has printed more than 6525 pages of tracts ; 
equal to twenty-two volumes of 300 pages each. At Madras have 
been j)rinted, in the Tamul language, seventy-one tracts, beside 
broad-sheets ; at Jaffna eighty tracts, and at Travancore fifty, 
making in all over 200 publications in Tamul. About fjly 
tracts have been printed in the Malay ; in the Chinese, about 
a hiindrel, comprising 5863 pages, or twice the amount of pages 
in Morrison's Bible. In Burman, there are tiventy-eight tiacts, 
making about 900 octavo })ages ; beside portions of Scripture in 
tract form. It would be tedious to make further specifications. 

* Our own bihlical literature owes much to the researches of missionaries ; 
not only for important illustrations from manners, customs, natural history, &c., 
but for criticism. See, on the last point, a paper in the Quarterly Observer 
for January, 183C, on " The obligations of philology to modem missionary 
cflbrls." 



374 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

Among tliese publications are hymn-books, in several lan- 
guages. Every one may conceive the difficulty of writing 
j)oetry in a foreign tongue, even if the metre and mode of versi- 
fication resemble our own ; the reverse of which is true of 
Oriental languages. At most missions, the variety of hymns is 
now sufficient for public and private worship, and some ad- 
vance has been made in teaching converts to sing. 1 could 
not explain, without too many words, the labor and difficulty of 
this work in both its departments. 

All these works are to be enjoyed by future converts, to their 
more sj)eedy and effectual growth in grace ; and by future 
missionaries, in extending the knowledge and the arguments by 
which Christianity is to prevail. 

The amount printed, forms but a fraction of what has been 
made. Part of the rejected or postponed matter may yet be 
serviceable ; but a large number of manuscrij)ts, made by begin- 
ners, though useful in their place as studies, will never be printed. 
The amount of life and labor expended in producing the read- 
ing matter now extant, is not easily conceived. It is a labor from 
which fruit can only now begin to be realized. The same noise- 
less, and for the time, ineffective labors, must be performed in all 
new missions, and continued to a great extent in the old ones ; 
but so far as idiomatic, intelligible, and adapted works have been 
prepared, it is work done forever. 

7. In nearly every mission there have been prepared a 
grammar, vocabulary, and dictionary. 

Rude and imperfect as some of these necessarily are, because, 
in their first stages of preparation, they furnish most desirable 
aid to beginners, saving not only months of labor, and much 
health and strength, to new missionaries, but forming the rudi- 
ments which future students will improve to completeness. Not a 
few of these helps have already advanced, under successive mis- 
sionaries, to a good degree of perfection, and are among the 
noblest literary works of tlie day 

8. An amount literally incalculable of Bibles and tracts has 
been put into circulation. 

Making the fullest deduction for such of these as may have 
been destroyed, millions doubtless remain, to prove, as we may 
trust, seed sown in good ground. 

I am not among those who seem to think that if Christian 
publications are scattered abroad, good must follow. But the rec- 
ords of Bible and tract efToits most amply show that God smiles 



MEASURE OF MISSIO.\ARY SUCCESS. 375 

on tliis species of benevolence. Every annual report of these 
societies gives fresli tacts, so tiiat volumes might be filled with 
these alone. I give the following illusti-ation, not because more 
striking than others which constantly occur, but because recent 
and unpublished. A young man came to the Baptist brethren in 
Cuttack, stating that in his own country, about six years before, he 
fiad received from some stranger, who wore a hat, a religious tract ; 
which, almost without looking at, he placed in the bottom of his 
rhest. Lately, a gentleman had come through the place, making 
a survey of the country. The hal this person wore, remin<led 
the youth that once a person with a hat gave him a tract. He 
brought it forth from his chest, and for the first time read it over. 
It i)roved the means of his awakening ; and he persisted in his 
inquiries. Having unreservedly become a disciple of Christ, 
lie had now made a long journey to join himself to his people. 
He was baptized, and returned, and is now a useful laborer in 
the missionary service. 

9. Great mechanical facilities have been created. 

Beside the presses employed on foreign languages, by the Bible 
and tract societies of Europe and Aiiierica, there are now in 
full operation in heathen lands, more than forty j^iinting-ofFices, 
belonging to missionary societies. Some of these have from 
five to ten presses, generally of the best construction. The fonts 
of type are numerous, and in many different characters. Each 
of these fonts has cost thousands of dollars, because, in addi- 
tion to the usual expenses, there have to be incurred, in each case, 
the cuttaig of punches, sinking of matrices, and apparatus for 
casting. The alphabets, too, consist not of twenty-six letters, 
like ours, but often of a thousand or more, including symbols 
and compounds. In addition to all these facilities, we may enu- 
merate school-houses, chapels, dwellings, libraries, apparatus, 
tools, globes, orreries, &c., at the different stations, and procured 
at an outlay of hundreds of thousands of dollars. All of the 
j)rinting-ofJices have binderies, supplied with tools sufficient to 
do the work of the respective establishments. 

Many natives, at the cost of much labor and time, have been 
trained to all the branches of mechanics connected with these 
offices. In bringing matters to their present position, the mis- 
sionaries have not only been obliged to devise, teach, and over- 
see, but in many cases, to perform every part of the manual 
labor. These services and expenses are not again to be per- 
formed in the same p'aces. The costly scaffolding is up, for 



376 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

large portions of the growing edifice ; and future labor and 
money, on those sections, may go directly to the increase of tlie 
building. 

Beside the property invested in these facilities, and forming a 
large available capital, we are to consider the savings which will 
be made hereafter, by the imj)rovements which have been eftected. 
This point may be made jjlain by a single s])ccification. In 1805, 
the cost of printing a manuscript Chinese version of the New 
Testament, then existing in the British Museum, it was ascer- 
tained, would be two guineas (ten dollars) per copy.* In 1832, 
Mr. Hughes, of Malacca, wrote to the British and Foreign Bible 
Society,f that the cost of a hundred copies of the whole 
Bible, from the blocks, would be one himdred and four dol- 
lars — a difference of about three thousand per cent. ! Whenever 
punches and matrices have been made, the casting of type may 
liereafler be done at a comparatively cheap rate. 

10. Schools of various grades are established, and a multitude 
of youth have received a Christian education. 

To appreciate, in any proper degree, the magnitude of this 
result, it is necessary to consider the difficulties which have been 
overcome. In almost every case, the first offers of gi'atuitous 
instruction are s|)urned. When, at length, a few pupils are ob- 
tained, priestly influence has often driven them away. When 
even this is overcome, the children are frequently too wayward 
and idle to continue at school. Our victory, therefore, over the 
prejudices and jealousy of parents, the influence of priests, and 
the frivolity of the children, is a great achievement. Now, in 
many places, ajoplicants are far more numerous than can be 
received, and nothing but want of fimds precludes an almost 
unlimited extension of the system. Even brahmins send their 
sons without hesitation. 

I need not expatiate on all the probable effect of these schools, 
many of whose pupils are adults, and many more, who, though 
youth when at school, are adults now. They have diminished 
priestly influence by raising uj) an intelligent body of persons, 
who, though ever so humble, can and do argue trium})hant!y 
with the men who had before held the sway of great veneration. 
They have diffused a right knowledge of Christians and Chris- 
tianity, overthrown erroneous systems of philosophy and nature, 
arrested floods of vice, prepared intelligent hearers of the gospel, 

* Owen's First Ten Years of the British and Foreign Bible Society. 
I Report of the British and l^oreign Bible Society, 1833. 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 377 

proved tlie superiority of the missionary, and, in many cases, 
Lave been the means of genuine conversion. 

Some of these are boarding-schools, where the pupils are' 
vvliolly withdrawn fiom heathen influence. Some of them are 
for the children of native Christians, who receive at iiome im- 
pressions favorable to the jjermanency of those they receive at 
school. Some of them teach the higher brandies, such as form 
a collegiate course with us. Some are taught in languages never 
beibre committed to writing ; so that the pupils are the fii-st of 
their tribes who have ever learned to read. Some of them are 
for females, in countries where the sex has ever been left iu 
almost total ignorance. 

The whole number of pupils who have received education, or 
are now in the schools, cannot be ascertained. From the statis- 
tics furnished on this head by some societies, and the imperfect 
returns of others, I set down the j)U])ils now in missiojiary 
schools, througliout the world, at nearly three hundred thousand. 

11. The blessings of Christian morality have been widely 
diffused. 

Some whole nations have adopted Christianity. In Green- 
land,* in Labrador, and in more than thirty islands of the 
Southern Seas, paganism has ceased to be the national faith ! 
These liave become, in the customary sense, Christian countries. 
Instead of poverty, wars, and plunderings, are found plenty, 
j)eace, and security. Instead of murdered infants, neglected 
children, degraded wives, and burning widows, are seen do- 
mestic (»eace and social endearments. Instead of idleness, are 
tJie comforts of intelligent industry. Intellectual cultivation has 
supplanted brutal insensibility. Rulers and kings, laying aside 
ferocity and selfishness, are seen governing their people by Bible 
laws, and anxious for the general good. Wherever even nom- 
inal Christianity takes root, through Protestant efforts, it pro- 
duces more energy of character, milder manners, and purer 
morals, than has ever been shown under any form of Pagan or 
Mahometan influence. I confidently refer for proof to the Phil- 
lijjpine Islands, to Amboyna, Bengal, and Ceylon. 

There are, also, in the midst of heathen lands. Christian vil- 
lages and districts, shining as lights in dark places; such, for 
instance, as at Serampore, Luckantiapore, Tanjore, Tenevelly, 
Ceylon, Mata, and scores beside. 

* In Grcoiilaud there remained, in 1834, only one hundred and fifty liea. 
Ihen ! 



378 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

" Dialects unheard 
At Babel, or at Jewish Pentecost, 
Now first articulate divinest sounds, 
And swell the universal anthem." 

There are also single stations, where nominal Christians are 
reckoned by thousands. It is true, the degree to which the fruits 
of Christianity are produced, is not the same as in Christendom, 
where its influences are corroborated in a thousand ways, and 
matured upon successive generations. The conduct of these 
nominal ones is often a discouragement, and sometimes a disgrace. 
But the benefits preponderate. Children grow up among bene- 
ficial influences, and enliglitened to know good from evil. In- 
stead of a false, filthy, and damning mythology, commingling 
with their first and most lasting im])ressions, they are instructed 
and restrained by pure and blessed truth. The Sabbath is ob- 
served, and the same people assembling from week to week, 
afford an opportunity of impressing line upon line, precept upon 
precept; converts are not embarrassed for daily bread, nor 
scorned, abused, and abandoned by relations. Many formidable 
hinderances to conversion are thus removed. I need not expand 
this proposition. The reader will see, that among such a people, 
the missionary labors with many advantages similai" to those 
of a pastor in our own land. 

12. In some ])Iaces, the entire fabric of idolatry is shaken. 

The knowledge of the one true God, and of salvation through 
his Son, has, in sevei-al regions, become general. Hundreds of 
the best-informed persons openly ridicule and denounce the 
prevailing superstition ; and thousands have their confidence in 
it weakened, if not destroyed. Conviction of the truth is estab- 
lished in the minds of multitudes who dare not openly confess 
it. Not a few of the converts have been from among the distin- 
guished members of society, and even from the priesthood. 
Some of these have been so celebrated for sanctity, and so ex- 
tensively known, as to have excited, by their conversion, a thrill 
of inquiry and alarm in all their vicinity. Education has eman- 
cipated thousands from the terrors of paganism, who yet do not 
accept Christianity, nor consort with missionaries. Indeed, no 
man can be conversant with the heathen world, without per- 
ceiving that several large portions of the kingdom of darkness 
are on the eve of a religious and moral revolution. 

This topic of encouragement is no doubt extravagantly en- 
larged upon by some. It has been assumed of countries where 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 379 

it is not true ; and wliere. it is true, the degree has been overrated. 
Still, it is one of" tlie achievements oi" missions which the most 
scrupulous must admit. That it is found any where, and to any 
extent, is great encouragement ; it is not only a blessing on past 
efforts, and the promise of" a still greater, but a most animating 
facility and preparation for future exertion. 

13. The effect of missions on tlie European population 
abroad. 

Before this enterprise, there was, among those Avho resided in 
foreign lands, whether in public or private life, an almost uni- 
versal enmity to religion. Carey said that when he arrived in 
Calcutta, he could hear of only three j)ious persons in India ; ex- 
cepting the four or five missionaries ! Now, a considerable num- 
ber, even among the higiiest ranks, in many parts of the East, open- 
ly serve God. Hundreds of soldiers, and many officers, have been 
converted under missionary labor. Places of worship are built, 
and the Sabbath observed, where Christians had long resided 
without giving any visible sign of their faith. Missions now 
liave the countenance of a large number of gentlemen who 
make no profession of religion. Apologies for paganism, and 
opposition to Christianity, are nearly silenced. In various 
places, handsome contributions toward the scfiools, &c., are 
obtained from the officers and gentry on the spot. 

On no theme do pious "old Indians" dwell with more fervor 
than this change in the religious character of Euro]ieans, since 
tlieir arrival in the country. I might rehearse numerous facts 
given me by such, but s|iace does not permit. It is sufficient to 
say that much obstruction is thus removed at certain points, and 
an encouraging auiount of cooperation secured, which is annually 
increasing. Considering how large a part of the missionary 
field is under the dominion of Europeans, this single result of 
our past efforts is evidently of great consequence. 

14. Lastly, and chiefly — souls have been converted to God. 
Here is the great point. On this there can be no variety of 

sentiment, as to the value or the fruit, nor dispute as to the 
reality of its existence. 

" Behold the midnight glory ; worlds on worlds. 
Amazing pomp ! Redouble this amaze. 
Ten thousand add. Add twice ten thousand more. 
Then weigh the soul ! One soul outweighs them all, 
And calls the astonishhig magnificence 
Of unintelligent creation, poor." Yodng. 



380 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

Converted heathen are aheady nuin])ered by tens of tJiousands. 
I might fill many pages \Yitlj proof of the sincerity of their con- 
version, from the sacrifices they make, and the lives they live. 
I examined diligently into this matter everywhere; and have 
coi)ious details in my possession. But, adhering to the studied 
brevity of the other parts of this work, two or three specimens 
only will be given. Few Christians are aware of the extent to 
which such facts may be adduced. The various histories of 
missions are full of them. 

]n the last report of the London Missionary Society, it is 
stated that Narapot Singh, a native preacher, had by his at- 
tachment to Christianity, sacrificed, for a period of twenty-four 
years, an estate of eight thousand ruj)ees per annum, making in 
the whole one hundred thousand dollars. And this is '• all his living." 
For the entire period, he has endmed continual poverty and 
toil. Many of the Burman and Karen disciples have literally 
"suffered the loss of all things;" and it is believed that some 
have died in consequence of their sufferings. At the village 
of Mawbee, near Rangoon, a large number of Karens became 
Christians, through the preaching of a native assistant, and en- 
dured persecutions, which only fell short of taking life, for many 
months; having never seen a white missionary. I saw various 
individuals in Bengal and the Carnatic, who were then suffering 
banishment from all their relations, and many of the hardships 
of poverty, in consequence of serving God. In Madagascar, 
Christianity was for a while countenanced by Radama, the king, 
and the missionaries had many seals to their ministry. At his 
death, the queen, who had always opposed her husband in this 
thing, no sooner found herself in possession of supreme author- 
ity than she began to exercise it for the destruction of Christians. 
The missionaries were ex])elled. One after another, the promi- 
nent disciples have been put to death. One of these, Rassalama, 
Avas sentenced to death, and, for several successive days, was 
cruelly flogged before the fatal day arrived. But her faith never 
staggered, and she met death with a martyr's intrepidity. Her 
companions were sold into perpetual slavery, and their property 
confiscated ; but not one recanted. Rafaravavy, another distin- 
guished "woman, was for a long time kept in irons, and then sold 
as a slave. 

After this, the remaining Christians began to assemble in the 
night, at the house of Rafaralahy, where they read the Scripture, 
conversed together on spiritual things, and united in prayer and 
praise. They were soon betrayed to the government, and Rafii- 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 331 

V 

ral.-iliy, after l)eing kept in irons two or tliree days, was taken to 
tlie j)lace of execution. On liis way, lie spoke to tlie execu- 
tioners of Jesus Clnist, and liow liappy lie felt at the tliouglit uf 
seeing, in a lew minutes, liini who loved him and died lor iiini. 
At tlie place of execution, a few moments being granted liim, 
at his request, he oftered up a fervent ])rayer for his persecuted 
l)rethren, and commended Jiis soul to Jesus. He then, with 
]»erfect comjtosure, laid himself down, and was immediately put 
to death. He was twenty-five years of age, and of a resj)ectahle 
family. After this, tlie persecution was pressed with rigor. The 
government determined, if jiossible, to secure all the companions 
of Rafaraiahy. Several of them were seized, and afterwards 
made their escape. Many incidents, showing the distress to 
Avhich the Christians were reduced, are related. A large num- 
ber conceal themselves in the houses of friends, or in the forests, 
numbers are sold to slavery, and some are in irons. The queen 
])roposed to put every Christian to death ; but some of her offi- 
cers advised her against this, saying, " It is the nature of the re- 
ligion of the whites ; the more you kill, the more the people will 
receive it." 

Such are the facts, which might be multiplied to an indefinite 
extent. They leave no room to question the rejility of the re- 
ported conversions. Defections, indeed, often occur, to pain the 
lieai'ts of the missionaries ; but, though many have fallen through 
strong drink, love of gain, and other temptations, I never heard 
of one who was driven from Christianity by violence. 

It is impossible to know the lumiber of regenerated hea- 
tlien, as tiie returns are not furnished from some missions. 
Two thousand liave been baptized by missionaries connected 
with Seramjiore, of whom six hundred are now alive and in 
good standing. In the West Indies, connected with the 13aj>- 
tist and Methodist missions, there are C9,000 communicants. 
The number connected with the London Missionary Society is 
5,439 ; with the Church Missionary Society, 1,514 ; with the 
English Wesleyan Missionary Society, 48,795, exclusive of 
members in British America ; with the English Ka])tist Mis- 
sionary Society, 18,720; with the American Board of C. F. M. 
2,600;* with the American Baptist Board, 1,900; with the 
Moravian missions, 47,000. Some missions, for instance the 



*■ An extraordinary iiumher of persons in llie Sandwich Islands liave re- 
cently become religious. The particular accounts have not yet reached this 
country ; but it is supposed the iiuinlier is not far from 5000 ! 



382 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

J 

Moravian, do not require actual conversion to God as the term 
of church membership; so that we cannot calculate exactly from 
their returns in this argument. 

From the best data we can obtain, we may safely estimate the 
present number of converts, after deducting such as may be 
supposed to have been received on an outward profession mere- 
ly, at more than a hundred thousand. 

In many cases, these are lormed into churches, with pastors 
and deacons. The native preachers and catechists amount to 
more than a thousand. Many of these have received a good 
education in mission schools. Some (and the class is increas- 
ing) have become authors, and produced books, tracts, and 
hymns, of great value. Let the reader pause and consider the 
facts contained in these last four sentences ; for though they are 
barely named, they are of great injportance. 

In some places, these churches have become so established 
that if missionaries should retire, the cause would probably go 
on. The Rev. M. Baker, of Madagascar, declared in an address 
at Cape Town, several years ago, tliat there were " not less than 
five hundred natives, who had maintained a constant j)rofession 
of religion amidst persecution and danger." We have just seen 
how, with equal constancy, they could die for the truth. 

Some of these churches have already begun to contribute, 
even in pecuniary ways, to the furtherance of the great work. 
It is thus at the Sandwich Islands, in Burmah, and many other 
stations. Even the poor Africans at Griqua town, contributed in 
1836, to the funds of the Society, a hundred and thirty dollars, 
and at Bethelsdorf, in the same year, four hundred and forty 
dollars. 

In addition to these thousands of converts, now shining as 
lights in dark places, we must not forget the thousands who 
have died in the faith. In the case of Seranipore, out of two 
thousand baptized, only six hundred survive. We ought, there- 
fore, probably to add anotluir hundred thousand for converts 
deceased. 

It would be easy and delightful to rehearse the distinct narra- 
tives of many who have crowned a life of evident piety by a 
beconfmg death. To speak of hundreds or thousands of con- 
verted heathen, soun;ls cold, when we think of the hundreds of 
millions yet left to ])erish. But in tracing the history and reli- 
gious experience of an individual, our impressions become dis- 
tinct ; and to number even units seems an ample reward for all 
we have done or given. Such as would taste this feast will find 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 383 

it largely spread out before tliem in tlie Moravian and Baptist 
periodical accounts, tlie histories of missions, and the reports of 
societies. Separate volumes are also jJubHshed, containing the 
memoirs of many of these. He who knows the worth of his 
own soul, could not rise from the life of Krishnu, Petuml)er, 
Abdool Meseeh, Asaad Shidiak, Africaneer, Peng, Catharine 
Blown, Karaimokee, «&c., and retain enmity to the system of 
means which, under God, saved them from eternal death. 

These glorious fruits are now safe in the garner of God. 
Schwartz, Brainard, David, Schmidt, Carey, and a great com- 
pany of missionaries, have their converts with them before the 
throne. No apostasy, no temj)tations, no weakness, can over- 
take them now. There they are, where we would go. Some 
are there, to whose salvation we ourselves have ministered. 
Soon we shall embrace them, not only in the blessedness of a 
joint salvation, but in the delicious consciousness of having been 
the instruments of their deliverance. 

It', after such thoughts, we could come down again to mathe- 
matical calculation, we might consider that the total number of 
conversions, divided by the number of missionaries who fully 
acquired the vernacular tongues, would give from three hun- 
dred to four hundred converts to each ! Can the ministry at 
home reckon thus? Truly the measure of missionary success 
needs only to be closely scanned to become a theme of wonder, 
rather than of discouragement. 

VI. This discussion cannot properly close, without adverting 
to the effects of the missionary spirit on the churches at home. 

I have held a telescope to direct the reader's attention to cir- 
cumstances, in various parts of the heathen world, which, with- 
out this aid, he might not notice. This task is resigned, not 
because I have shown every thing, but because any one may now 
go into further details at his leisure. A glance at the effect of 
missions in our own country, will conclude my endeavors; and as 
they lie open to the percej)tions of every man, I will do little 
more than mention the subject. 

The formation of a missionary spirit, to the extent which now 
prevails, is reward enough for all the labors and expense which 
have been incurred. To a very important extent, ignorance, 
prejudice, covetousness, and indifference have been overcome. 
Experience is gained. Friends and supportei's are organized. 
Thousands have awakened to the duty of spreading the gospel, 
and will never give over. They will inculcate it u])on their 



3S4 MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 

children, convince their friends, and disarm objectors. Tlie 
friendly host will continually multiply. Contributions are not 
now drawn forth by novel and affecting statemeuts of hea- 
then cruelties, but in many cases come up spontaneously, from 
sources l3ing among the deepest springs of Christian action. 

Objectors make tliis item no part of their estimate when they 
declare that missions have failed. Had David done nothing 
toward the temj)le, when he had formed the plan and secured 
the means ? Was nothing done toward bringing civilization 
and Christianity to these shores, when as yet the Alay-flower lay 
in an English dock, and the resolved colony was commending 
its embryo enterprise to Cod ? Was nothing done toward our 
independence, when the spirit of resistance had been spread 
through the country, and the people resolved to be free ? The 
thing is too plain to need words. A great work has unquestion- 
ably been done, in bringing the church to its present state of 
feeling. The sjjirit of missions has grown to adolescence, and is 
daily acquiring strength: its implements and opportunities are 
ready, and its training becoming daily more comjilete. 

It is particularly to be considered that this spirit is not a mere 
sudden impetus or direction, such as is sometimes transiently 
given to public sentiment. For forty years it has been growing, 
slowly and soundly, amidst 0[)position, ridicule, reproach, and 
manifold disadvantages. Never was there a revolution hi human 
sentiment more obvious and positive. 

Formerly, the thought of sending the gospel to the heathen 
scarcely entered into the minds of God's peo])le. Many prayed, 
"Thy kingdom come," but none felt called u])on for personal ac- 
tion. W^hen Carey, Sutclifte, and Fuller, kindled the flame at 
the Northamptonshire Baptist Association, it became a measure 
supported by the zeal of a few. It grew and extended, by the 
zeal of many. Now it is the settled point of solemn duty with 
the great body of believers. It is found to have the same claims 
as any other duty, specified or implied, in the whole word of 
God. Arguments to prove that a Christian ought to aid in send- 
ing out God's light and truth, are beginning to be obsolete. Li- 
stead of these, the question now is, how much, and in what 
manner, each individual is to aid. In these respects we are 
still deficient, but in a state of progress. A few years ago, the 
whole United States had no foreigu missionary ; and when Jud- 
son, Newell, and others rit Anduver proposed to go as such, it 
seemed so doubtful whether the whole church could sustain 
them, that measures were taken to see if they could not be sup- 



MEASURE OF MISSIONARY SUCCESS. 



385 



ported from England. Now, the United States has in the foreign 
field, in the various departments of missionary service, more tlian 
seven hundred and Ibrty-six persons I They have forty-three 
printing-presses, and are aheady issuing Scriptures or ti'acts in 
fifty-six different languages! 

No symptom of revulsion, or of a waning enthusiasm, is dis- 
cernible in any quarter. The humblest advocate assumes the 
attitude of a man who feels tliat his cause will finally prevail. 
Discomfiture in some cases, and small success in others, have 
produced no check. Defeat only sends the bands of the benevo- 
lent "to inquire of the Lord." It leads them to doubt their 
measures, but not their object. It makes them sensible of weak- 
ness, but teaches them where their strength lies. It silences 
their boasting, but awakens their prayers. 

The development of the missionary spirit, in the single matter 
of home missions, is lull of grandeur and promise. Eleven hun- 
dred and three missionaries are now in the service of the Ameri- 
can Home Missionary Society, and the American Baptist Home 
Missionary Society, to say nothing of those frotn similar institutions, 
in these and other denominations. These are scattered among 
feeble churches, strengthening good beginnings, sustaining Bible 
classes and benevolent societies, diffusing Bibles and tracts, and, 
above all, gathering a multitude of souls. The number who have 
made credible profession of religion, in connection with the two 
societies above named, one of which has been in operation 
eleven years, and the other but half that time, is about seventy- 
Jive thousand! In Ireland it has produced effects of the most 
animating kind. It is now extending into the continent of 
Europe, and is nobly calling forth the most blessed actings of 
Christian zeal. 

It would require a disproportionate space were I but to 
enumerate the societies and movements which have grown up 
as the fruit of a missionary spirit. Such an enumeration would 
comprise results of even greater magnitude than can be shown 
in the foreign field. To this spirit may be ascribed all the im- 
provements of the church for the last forty years. For proof, 
contrast the state of religion in missionary and anti-missionary 
churches. It is the spirit which forms the essential difference 
between active and inactive Christians, and comprises nearly a'l 
the characteristics which make them " the salt of the earth." It 
has altered the character of colleges, academies, asylums, school- 
books, and, in fine, placed Christianity itself, so far as it has 
prevailed, in the attitude it maintainefl under apostolic inffuence. 
17 



3Qg MEASURE OF MISSIO.TaST SCCCESS. 

Ck):ycLLi»iNG Remarks. Were more time and labor than I 
am ahle to give, jjestowed u{X)n tiie j>recediijg investigations, 
this cha]»ter ujigLt be made more coi)ious. But to give it com- 
pleteness is impossible. Thousands of facts lie scattered about, 
in unpublished journals and letters; and many more are known 
only to Him from whom no secrets are hidden. But the facta 
which 1 have adduced, do not lose their force for want of more, 
and can only be answered by the production of counter facts. 
But what lacts can countervail such as have been here adduced ? 
The last paragraph alone, weighs more than mountains of 
objection. 

That captains or merchants visiting the East often say, ""SVe 
read an'miating missionary aecomits in the papers, but see no 
such things on the spot," is not surprising. How should they ? 
What means do they lake to get information ? Have they gone 
to the native chapels ; or accompanied the missionary in his 
daily rounds ; or visited the converts' homes, or the schools ; or 
seen Bibles and tracts given away? Have they so much aa 
\-iKited the nriissionary himself^ except at meal-times, or other 
intervals of labor? What would a gentleman know of xiie state 
of religion Ln London or New York, who had merely walked 
about the streets, or conversed with those who make no preten- 
sions to piety; or with such as are hostUe ? Without taking 
pains, even residents at a station may remain almost perfectly 
ignorant of a missionarv's oi>erations. 

Instead of naked assertions that nothing has been done, we 
have a right to ex{>ect objectors to come forward with the re- 
ligious statistics, past and present, of specified places. They 
should fairly show that the work said to be done is not done, or 
that the effects said to have followed have not followed. If 
tljey merely point to things left undone, we concur in lamenta- 
tion ; and only ask larger means, and further time, to show greater 
results. 

There is reason to suspect, that those who most loudly assert 
the failure of missions, are those who would have it so. There 
are, in foreign countries, many who would shelter their vices in 
the' g'oom of surrounding paganism, and are impatient of the 
restraints of missionary influence. And there are many at 
home, who, being inimical to Cliristianit\% impugn its benevolent 
operations, for want of talent or learning, to attack its funda- 
mentals. And there are many, who, without Ijeiiig unfriendly to 
religion, are glad of a cloak for covetousness, and, in declining 
to contribute on the score of conscience, can save their money. 



MEASURE OF MISSIO>-ART SUCCESS. 337 

and at tlie same time claim superior piet}", or keener insight 
into abuses. 

It is quite certain, that tlie great body of those who conii>lain 
are not persons wlio have most right to do so. They are not 
tliose who have given tlieir money, their children, or themselves 
to the work ; and who, Lt" there be fraud or folly, are of all oiliers 
the most interested to make the discovery. They are not tliose 
who have seen most of tlje field, or who have most diligently 
read the reports of the societies. They are not those who have 
had the most extensive and intimate acquaintiuice with the men 
who have gone forth, and who might uifer what is done tirom a 
knowledge of the agents. They are not the men best acquainted 
with the managers and management of tlie different boards. All 
these classes of persons are friendly. 

Such considerations should restrain the uninformed from 
impugning our motives or disparaging this great work. They 
should hear the voice of reason, addressed to some in a tbrmer 
age, who opposed what they did not understand. " Let these 
men alone ; for il' this counsel or this work be of men, it will 
come to nought ; but if it be of God, ye cannot overthrow it ; 
lest haply ye be found even to fight against God." 



3S3 



CHAPTER II. 
ON THE MODE OF CONDUCTING MODERN MISSIONS. 

Schools — Translations and Tracts — Preaching in English — Periodicals — 
Use of the Roman Alphabet — Missionary Physicians — Unnecessary Dis- 
play and Expense — Direct Preaching to Natives — Formation of Regular 
Churches — (lualificalions of ISalive Assistants — Instruction in the 
English Language — Intermission of Operations — Division of Labor — 
Concenlralion — Ciioice of Fields — Remarks. 

More than fofty yeai-s' experience in modern missions, ought 
to furnish data for an intelligent revision of tlie system ; and the 
anxious inquiries which are heard on this point, not only among 
friends and supporters at home, but among missionaries them- 
selves, seem to demand some remarks on tiie subject, in a work 
like the present 

The question is, whether tlie wliole system is so erroneous that 
it sliould be abandoned for another ; or is correct in the main, 
with curable imperfections. The first of these opinions finds 
many affirmative respondents, some of whom propose definite 
substitutes.* The writer embraces the other opinion, and ven- 
tures, though with sincere diffidence, to contribute his mite 
toward a discussion which he hoj)es will call forth abler pens, 
and result in a hapjiy approximation to a j>erfect arrangement 
For the sake of brevity, whatever is approvable will be passed 
over, <ind only such matters touched, as seem to call for change. 

1. The proportion of time and money, bestowed on schools, 
should be much less. 

Schools are extravagantly extolled, and hopes are bnilt upon 
them which could only be warranted by a New Testament 
declaration tliat they are the Lord's chosen and j)rimary means 
for spreading Christianity. It has been declared, that " our only 

* Edward Irving proposes that each missionary go forth singly, looking to 
God for supplies, even as he does for success. The author of the Natural 
History of Euthasiasm insists that our present system must be dissolved, and 
recomposed upon a new model; the principal feature of which is, that all 
existing missionary societies be absorbed into one great society, umler the 
English Episcopacy, and using the English lilurgj'. 



MODE OF CO^'BUCTING MISSIONS. 339 

hope of success lies in the school system ;" that "the evidences 
of Christianity must be understood before it can be embraced;" 
that " man must be civilized before he can be Christianized;" 
and tliat " tlie schoohnaster must precede the missionary." 

Thus a religion which God designed to convert and save even 
ignorant savages, is made to wait the operation of a tardy pro- 
cess of intellectual culture ; and man is to be made wise unto 
salvation through the wisdom of this world. By this system, 
whole generations of adults must be left to perish, while the 
youth are being instructed ; and instead of boldly advancing to 
dislodge " the strong man armed," we ai-e to seek priority of 
occupation in the human heart. Alas ! by such a course, we are 
not only in danger of losing our labors, but of awakening the 
jealousy of Him who " will not give his glory to another." 

The extent to which schools have been established, by modern 
missionaries, is very great. There cannot be fewer than two 
hundred and fifty thousand youth now receiving mstruction in 
missionary schools. As the school system has been actively 
maintained from an early period, and a full course may be pre- 
sumed to include only five years, this number must be doubled to 
make the true total of educated pupils. And, as the great majority 
of scholar's remain but a yeai* or two, the number must be again 
doubled, making an aggregate of a million of pupils, who have 
been, for a succession of months, subject to missionary influence. 

The proportion of conversions, among this mighty host, is cer- 
tainly very small. It was stated by the late Rev. Mr. Reichardt 
of Calcutta, who labored long in the service of the Church Mis- 
sionaiy Society, that, of the many thousand boys instructed by 
that society, only five or six had been converted. At Vepery, a 
suburb of Madi'as, where, for a hundred years, this species of 
labor has been lai-gely bestowed by the Christian Kjiow ledge 
Society, the results ai-e scarcely more encouraging; nor at 
Tranquebar, where schools have been maintained for a hun- 
dred and thirty years. In all Madras, where several thousands 
have constantly been taught in missionary schools, there are not 
known to be half-a-dozen converted natives. At the Anglo- 
Chinese college at Malacca, which has existed for twenty years, 
only a few have been converted, though some twenty or thirty 
have been brought over to Christianity. In Ceylon, whei-e 
schools have been conducted for twenty-six yeai's, and generally 
with more attention to religion than is common in India, few 
conversions occurred previous to 1830 ; and those since that 
time have been rather the fruit of protracted meetings, and 



390 MODE OF CO?JDUCTI>'G MISSIONS. 

special pastoral efforts, than of the school system. Out of the 
Scotch General Assembly's School in Calcutta, wliich for six 
years has had an average of four hundred scholars, and the 
entire and constant attention of two missionaries, there have 
been but five or six conversions. The Baptist schools in Ben- 
gal, numbering thousiuids of scholars, for more than thirty years 
past have produced very fe\v conversions. That at Chittagong, 
taught by a missionary in person, every day for sixteen years, 
with an average of two hundred puj)ils, has witnessed but two 
of the scholars brouglit to a knowledge of tlie truth. In Arracan, 
uo conversion has yet occin-red in the schools. Among all the 
Burmans, I know of no Cliristian wlio is regarded as the fruit of 
schools. Among the Karens, many scliolars have l»een convert- 
ed ; but the primary and daily oliject of those schools has ever 
seemed to be the conversion, rather than the education, of the 
scholar. 

Let the primary and immediate object of gathering youth into 
a school, be their conversion, and the schoolmaster may do great 
good. But to rely chiefly on him and his work, for results which 
Jehovah has appointed to be done liy other men and other 
means, is only calculated to mislead us, and insure disappoint- 
ment. Our expectations from schools are in most cases wholly 
different from the expectations of the teacher himself, nine tenths 
of tliem being unconverted heathen. 

In places where schools have most abounded, and for the 
longest time, a considerable number of pupils have rejected 
idolatry, without embracing Christianity; and are now conceited 
hifidels, worse to deal with than pagans. Many of these, by 
means of their education, have obtained offices under govern- 
ment, or in large commercial houses, and exert considerable 
power and influence against religion. In some cases, nearly all 
the pupils are children of country-born Catholics, whose education 
only serves to make Popery more respectable ; in others, a great 
majority of scholars are from the poorest of the people, whose 
knowledge of reading, writing, and ciphering, does not serve to 
elevate their situation, and who, having no use for these ac- - 
quirements, after leaving school, forget them to a great extent. 

Few are so far advanced as to comprehend those evidences 
of Christianity, which have been made such an argument in 
favor of schools. Even in our own country, this is a study for 
the last years at college, and not for scliool-boys. But our 
Bchool-boys are better prepared to comprehend these evidences. 



MODE OF CONDUCTliNG MISSIONS. 



391 



tlian most of tlie students in Oriental "colleges," even of an 
advanced standing. 

It should be considered Iiovv far the diff'usion of the ability to 
read is desirable among a people in whose language little or 
nothing of a valuable nature is yet prepared, or likely soon to be. 
The readers in Bengalee, taught by missionaries, have been fur- 
nished, by unprincipled natives, with a multitude of silly and 
pernicious books, which, at the old average of readers, would 
probably never have been printed. The PVieiid of India, of 1825, 
contains a list of all the books issued from the native press in 
Bengal up to that period. They amount to thirty-one ; and are 
all, with two exceptions, pestilent or prej)osterous ! The issues 
of subsequent years have been, no doubt, of the same character; 
but I am not able to find a list. 

When tiie happiest effect flows from schools, viz. the conver- 
sion of scholars, the influence diffiised on the popidation is less 
than from conversions which follow preaching. The trium[)h 
of Christ is scarcely percejjtible. The heathen see that the chil- 
dren have been regularly trained to the new faith. They know 
that if our children were trained in the same manner by then' 
priesthood, they would as easily become i)agans. They attribute 
the change, therefore, not to the superiority of our system, but to 
the natural effect of early education. 

1 am far from wishing the school system to be abandoned, 
especially in Hindustan. A school has many advantages in 
enabling a missionary to bring divine truth before his pupils ; 
and a man whose heart glows with zeal, will find it an animating 
field. The error seems to be, not in having schools, but in ex- 
})endiug upon them a disj)ro]»ortionate measure of our means ; 
in expecting too much from them ; in not making them suffi- 
ciently religious ; in establishing more than can be properly 
superintended ; in the indiscriminate i-eception of scholars ; in 
employing heathen teachers ; and in trusting to science for the 
overturn of idolatry. 

Schools furnish an advantageous opportunity for the partial 
employment of fresh missionaries, whose knowledge of the lan- 
guage is insufficient for more direct efforts. But this very 
deficiency in the language, must almost preclude religious influ- 
ence. The plan now oiten pursued, is for a missionary or 
his wife to superintend five, ten, or even twenty schools, taught 
by hired pagans. These are visited once every few days, in the 
cool of the morning; giving ten or fifteen minutes to each. 



392 MODE OF COXUCCTI>'G r.iissio.vs. 

Jn some cases, they are visited once a month. The master 
merely teaches reading and writing; and tliat, too, hi Jiis owu 
iuexpeit, or perhaps ferocious /nanner. He is naturally sup- 
posed by the scholars to understand our religion, and his not 
receiving it has a pernicious influence. Qualified teachers are 
so few, that persons have sometimes been employed who open- 
ly opposed Christiajuty. Secret counteracting influences, by 
the master, are still more common. In schools patronized by 
the British government, though taught by a missionaiy, it is 
required that instruction in religion shall not be formally 
introduced. 

The question seems not to have received sufficient attention, 
whether we should nniltiply schools, and teach mere rudunents, 
to a great number, or restrict the number, and carry the educa- 
tion to a high point, I am in favor of the latter course. No 
nation has become literary by universal instruction in reading 
and writing. These confer no knowledge; they are only means 
for acquiring and diifusing it In a country where the absence 
of books, periodicals, and political freedom, preclude advance- 
ment in after life, beyond the rudiments learned at school, these 
acquirements will not be generally retained ; or if retained, are 
of little use. With us, common schools bring our youth to the 
starting-point, and give to genius, where it exists, a chance for 
advancement and honor. But where these leave a heathen 
pupil, there, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, he stops; 
and soon begins to recede, for want of use for his knowledge. 
Beside, the most extended system of such schools, which we can 
hope to establish in the heathen world, can embrace, after all, 
but a verj^ inconsiderable portion of the youth ; so that even the 
argument for universality will not apply. 

It seems to me, therefore, that the highest advantages of 
schools are to be gained by gathering select children of pagans 
into boarding-schools, and ail the children of native converts 
into day-schools, (which at most stations may be united,) and 
carrying the education of these to a high point Such pupils 
will be exempt from the ch-eadful pollutions of a heathen home, 
and the innumerable associations which tend to nullify eveiy 
good influence. They become subject to continuous and sys- 
tematic efforts, which are impossible where the scholars are 
often changing. Some of them are likely to become authors in 
their own language, for which they will have qualifications 
which foreigners can scarcely hope to attain. 

Such schools give the missionary a paternal relationship to 



MODE OF COMJUCTKNG MISSIONS. 393 

tJie cliild, and a probability of securing his confidence and 
attaclinient. They liiniisli precious opportunities for the daily 
inculcation of sacred truth. They form at once permanent 
congregations and attached households ; opening access, at the 
same time, to many parents. New missionaries could usefully 
assist, two or three hours a day ; and rather gain than lose time, 
in learning the language. Scholars long trained in this manner, 
could not but have a salutary influence on their parents, and be 
the means of diffusing many important truths. The systematic 
control of their minds, and constant example of true family 
order, would counteract the danger, which exists in other schools, 
of creating a contempt for parental knowledge and government, 
without furnishing an adequate substitute, to prevent the ef- 
fects of filial disobedience. Li every such school, one mis- 
sionary at least, competent in the language, should devote his 
whole time, and hold the salvation of tlie pupils as his promi- 
nent aim. 

In educating converts, particularly the younger ones, there can 
scarcely be too much effort. If knowledge is power, let us give 
it to the truly good. Let us not com|)ass sea and land to make 
a proselyte, and then leave him to grope his way in ignorance, 
perplexity, and error. Let us form liis tastes, habits, studies, 
and pursuits, upon the noblest principles of divine revelation. 
Let us do all in our power to create an impressive superiority 
on the part of such as bear the Christian name, and to aid them 
in diffusing light and peace. 

2. At some stations, at least, less time might be devoted to 
translations and tracts. 

It is eminently desirable to perfect every ti-act and tianslation ; 
but where an intelligible and tolerably correct one exists, the per- 
fecting of it may thenceforth he made a by-business. There 
will be diversities of taste, if no more, Avliich Avill prevent any 
production from suiting every scholar. But it is not found that 
the last is always the })est. There have been })rinted seven 
versions and revisions of the Malay Bible ; and a distinguished 
missionary among that people assured me that the first, pub- 
lished at Serampore, remains the best. 

It is not desirable that missionaries should in their first years 
devote themselves to translation and authorship, even if there 
be no Christian books in the language. To write and translate, 
as exercises for themselves, is important ; but they should put 
noihing to press till they have been years at their post, and have 
revised their work many times. It would be well if evei-y 



394 MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 

missionary, qualified, by his early studies, to translate the Scrip- 
tures, were to take some select portion, and occupy himself upon 
it, at leisure moments, for eight or ten years ; or even his lifetime. 
ILe might sketch two or three tracts, and keep them by him in 
the same way. This, however, would not prevent the necessity 
for some individuals to make translations and authorehip their 
jirominent employment. 

The anxiety for an immediate production of books has caused 
tlie publication of Scriptures and tracts so imperfect, as to be 
almost, if not quite useless, and in particular passages quite 
erroneous. To prove this, and at the same time show tiie sort 
of errors to which T allude, 1 will give a few instances which 
were mentioned to me, taken from distant and different versions. 
John i. 1, " In the beginning was the word, and the word was 
with the Lord God Boodh, and the word was the Lord God 
Jioodh." Exod. iii. 2, "The Lord appeared unto him in a flame 
of fire in the knot of a tree." Acts i. 8, "Ye shall receive the 
power of life and death." Matt. v. 3, " Blessed are the destitute of 
life." 1. Cor. v. 6, " A little crocodile crocodileth the who!e lumj)." ! 

When there are none of these mistranslations, there may be 
such a want of idiomatic propriety, such an infusion of new 
words, or such general obscurity, as to discourage, if not bewil- 
der, the heathen reader. Such, it appears from Mr. Medhurst,* 
is the case with Morrison's Chinese version, of which the con- 
vert Lew Tse-chuen, as quoted by him, saj's, " I perceive there is 
no unwillingness to acce|)t the books, but, failing to comprehend 
their meaning, they frequently throw the work aside." To the 
same effect is his quotation fiom Choo Tih-lang, a Chinese trau 
scriber now in England. " Having perused the present transla- 
tion of the Scriptures into Chinese, I find it exceedingly verbose, 
— containing much foreign phraseology, so contrary to the usual 
style of our books, that the Chinese cannot thoroughly understand 
the meaning, and frequently refuse to look into it." Marshman's 
version is greatly liable to the same objections. 

It is a serious subject, and deserving the early attention of the 
managers at home, as well as Biblical critics, how fai- our versions 
should conform to the pompous and imchristian phraseology of 
Eastern languages. The language of a superior to an inferior is 
wholly different from that of an inferior to a superior. Shall this 
diversity be followed in translations ? It is so in many of them, 
and not so in others. In one Tamul version, the Virgin Mary is 

*" China, its Stale and Prospects, p. 443. 



MODE OF CO:yDUCTING MISSIONS. 095 

always addressed as « worshipful." And instead of " said," &c. in 
Gen. i. 3, it is " opening his divine nioiitlr, he said, Let liglit ap- 
peal'." In one version, "aj)0stle " is rendered " royal messenger." 
These idioms give a haughty aspect to tiie language of apostles 
and prophets, and a servility to those who address them. It will 
be a question also whether we shall make two versions in some 
languages, one high and literaiy, and one connnon and jdain. 
Henry Martyn's Persian Testament is of the former kind, and 
though intelligible and acceptable to all the upper classes, is 
wholly incomprehensible to vulgar readers. Rhenius's version 
of the Tamul is ijitermediate, and has by some been objected to 
as suitable for no class of society. 

Yet with all their imperfections, most translations have been 
BuflBciently good to convey a large amount of genuine truth ; 
so that the exjjense has by no means been utterly wasted. 
Thank God, the most important texts in the Bible are easily 
translated. It would probably be difficult to err in rendering 
"He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved;" "It is a 
faithful saying, and worthy of all acceptation, that Jesus Christ 
came into the world to save sinners ; " " Except a man be born 
again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." 

The value even of a good version of Scripture, is wholly over- 
rated by such as suppose it to be as intelligible to heathen as our 
Bible is to the unconverted. The case is far otherwise. The 
most intelligent pagan finds not only words, but facts, reason- 
ings, and allusions, which he can no better understand than the 
Ethiopian eunuch did the predictions concerning Christ. He 
has not so much preparation for understanding the Bible, as is 
acquired by our children in the nursery. Beside, this want of 
preparation is tlie littleness and debility of a heathen's mind, 
which is alluded to, page 364. Things must be explained to 
him, as to an infant. Let the language be never so plain and 
idiomatic, he will rarely understand the subject, unless it be some 
simple parable or narrative. Hence the king of Siam, after 
hearing a Christian book read, threw it aside, saying, " Let the 
teachers go on giving these books ; no man in my kingdom can 
understand them." 

As to tracts translated from the English, very few of them can 
be of any service, except to some of the moi'e advanced converts. 
They all are constructed on the supposition that the reader 
knows certain doctrines, or facts, which heatlien do not know, 
and take for granted, what a heathen does not grant. They 
all involve some knowledge of Christianity, while the heathen 



396 MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 

reader may never liave so much as heard of it before. Tracts for 
the heathen must be written for tiiein ; and tliat by men who not 
only know their modes of thinking, tlieir system of rehgion, 
tlieir habits, temptations, &.C., but by such as have so far 
learned tlie language as to think in it, and write it with idiomatic 
accuracy. 

The number of heathen who can read intelligibly, on subjects 
not connected with trade and common things, is very small. This 
point seems not to have excited sutticient attention ; and a tew 
efforts, lately matle, lead to startling conclusions. Mr. North, of 
the mist^ion to Singapore, has made the most efficient investiga- 
tion on this subject that 1 know of. He examined, personally, 
the crews of many vessels trading to Singapore, from the other 
ports of the peninsula, and the numerous islands of the China 
Sea. Out of two thousand persons thus examined, he informed 
me that he found but one could read with ease, and four others 
who could s})ell out the sense with difficulty. The rest, though in 
general able to read the characters, scarcely knew the sense of a 
single word. These persons are not an inferior class, like Euro- 
pean sailois, but are for the most part traders on their own ac- 
count, and may be taken as a fair sample of the inhabitants of 
their respective countries. The Malay population of Singapore 
has scarcely a reader, except a mere handful, who had been 
taught in the mission schools.* I have already spoken of the few- 
ness of readers even in China. The Burnmns, though a reading 
people, as to the ability to pronounce the characters, are not gen- 
erally able to read with understanding. Jn a late discussion of 
another subject in the Friend of India, it is declared by the edi- 
tor that not more than one million, out of the thirty millions of 
Jiengalees, can read. And this estimate is twice as high as is made 
by some others. Rlr. Trevelyan, admitting that there may be a 
million, asks, "And what sort of readers are this one million? 
How many of them understand what they read ? How many can 
even pronounce fluently the mere words on a page they never saw 
before ? Even Pundits and Munshees, and much more the com- 
mon people, read with difficulty, stopping to spell words, and re- 
j)eating over and over the last two or three words, while they are 
studying out the next. There are probably not Jive hundred persons 



* \n calling these a mere lianflful, I do not impeach the missionaries who 
have for many years labored larsrely in tliis department. The truth is, it has 
been found impossible to persuade many of the scholars to remain longcnoiigU 
to acquire the art of readiiijj. 



MODE OF COIVDUCTIJfG MISSIONS. 097 

m all Jrulia not educated by Europeans, tvho could take up a transla- 
tion, in their own character, of any work hi philosophy, morals, or re- 
ligion, and read it extempore toith understanding.^' 

Our exi)ectatioiis froiii the diflbsioii of Bibles and tracts appear 
extravagant, if we reason u]jon tlieni in the abstract. No school 
teaclier could hope to fultil his duty by shutting himself up in a 
study, and sending out among his pupils elementary treatises 
and cogent apjieals. Cases of the benefit of Bible and tract dis- 
tribution have occurred in sufficient numbers to warrant our 
diligent continuance in this department of effort, but not enough 
to warrant our making it so prominent in our general system of 
means. It is to be considered how few it has converted, com- 
j)ared with the prodigious amount done in this waj-. Amon-' 
the Malays, for instance, who have had the whole Bible, and 
more than forty tracts, distributed among them by thousands, 
for many years, I could not liear of a decided Christian on the 
Peninsula. The avidity with which our books are received, is 
not to be ascribed to a general and intense desire to know tiio 
trutJi. The jiaper, the printing, the shape, and the color of the 
book, make it as great a cm-iosity as a pahn-leaf manuscript is to 
us. A heathen missionary might give away any qutmtity of such 
manuscripts in the streets of our cities, and the rush for them 
would continue till they ceased to be curiosities. 

We certainly do well to prosecute a lavish distribution in 
countries like China and Japan, where missionaries are not ad- 
mitted ; or like Burmah and Madagascar, where their tenure is 
frail. But the utility in such cases consists chiefly in prejmring 
the way for personal effort ; and without its being thus followed 
uj), permanent and general benefit can liardly be expected. 

3. There should be less preaching in English. 

At a great i)roportion of our stations there are some who 
speak our language ; and these, though hut half a dozen, will 
desire the ministrations of the Sabbath. But the missionary is 
sent forth to heathen ; and he violates his engagement, if these 
receive not the great bulk of his attentions. Many missionaries 
are almost lost to the heathen in this way. These Europeans or 
Americans know the system of salvation, and deliberately put 
it away! To irreligious men of ctdtivated minds, connnon 
preaching has no cliarms. It must either be so eloquent, as to 
make them consent to hear unwelcome truths, for the pleasure 
of the oratory; or so neutral, as not to disturb their consciences. 
A young man, who has practised little or none in his own coun- 
try, will find regular weekly services consume too much time 



393 MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 

and strength. If he deal in undigested crndities, his little au- 
dience will fall off, or no fruit ensue. Constant and close 
preaching to a vei-y small auditory, unless managed as few have 
skill to do, will give personal offence, and inflict on the mission- 
ary both mental suffering and official embarrassment. Beside, it 
is seldom desirable for a missionary to appear closely connected 
with other foreign residents. In general, the persons with whom 
he becomes thus identified in the eyes of the people, live in ojjen 
violation of the Sabbath, and other scandalous vices; and the 
natives are likely to take their conduct as the fruits of Christian- 
ity. It has ever been a difficulty with missionaries to make 
the heathen understand that these people are Christians only in 
name. 

This is not the place to multiply arguments on any subject. 
It will suffice to remark, that while a missionary should readily 
render his spiritual services to nominal Christians when sick- 
ness, death, or other occasions call for them ; and welcome to his 
family worship and expositions such as may be willing to attend, 
his j)roper business is to go after the lost ones, who have never 
known the way of peace. To these he is sent by those who 
furnish his support. Where it is proper to maintain an English 
service, there should be sent a person 'adaj)ted to the work, who 
should make this his chief business, and whose health should 
not be worn down, or his mind distracted, by studying the ver- 
nacular. His support should be expected in great part from his 
auditory, and only such sums voted by the Missionary Board, as 
may be contributed for this purpose. 

4. Less effort should be spent, for the present at least, on 
peiiodicals. 

Nearly every principal station, such as Calcutta, Bomltay, 
Madras, Malacca, Canton, Greece, &c., has one or more periodi- 
cals, published or edited by missionaiies. It must be evident, 
that the getting up of these is attended with far more labor, than 
similar works in our own country, both from manifold inconve- 
niences and the fewness of writers. A serious amount of mis- 
sionary energy is therefore expended in this way, even on the 
supposition that subscribers, other than missionaries, are suffi- 
ciently numerous to cover the mechanical expense. But if 
these periodicals do not support themselves, much less pay the 
salaries of editors, or if most of the subscribers are missiona- 
ries, they cost the church, as a whole, too much, both in money 
and men. 

With one or two excojuions, the j^ periodicals are in the Eng 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 399 

lish language, and are intended to affect English and Americans. 
They contain theological and missionary controversies, general 
literature, philology, news, translations of pagan authors, and 
other matter, which, to a great extent, might with advantage he 
inserted in existing periodicals at home, or in some one or two 
established for this separate purj)ose. They might thus be even 
more extensively distributed among missionaries than they are 
now ; lor it is in general easier to send parcels from home to 
each station, than to send them from any one station to all the 
others. 

If this amount of labor and expense be continued, it should 
be by the expressed will of the churches, just as contributions 
arc now designated for education, for the distribution of Bibles 
and tracts, for the support of children, or for general missionary 
purposes. Funds to suppoit editors and writers for periodicals, 
might be made a distinct account. If the amount of contribu- 
tions for this object will sustain these periodicals, and brethren 
arise who deem it their province to go abroad and edit them, 
no one can object. The department of sei'vice is both use- 
ful and honorable ; and some of the present works might prob- 
ably be continued with advantage. But* we must not, with our 
])resent small force, bestow dispropoHionale time and money 
upon it, nor allow the friends of missions in this country to be 
expecting conversions in proportion to the number of laborers, 
without understanding how those laborers are employed. 

5. In reducing languages to writing, the Roman letters only 
should be used. 

The curse of Babel has been greatly increased by the variety 
of characters mankind have employed in expressing articulate 
sounds. Some of these are more philosophical and convenient 
than others, but none are comparable to ours. I cannot so 
extend this head as to argue the whole case, but will barely 
name a few reasons which go to show why our alphabet should 
be preferred. 

Oriental alphabets are written with great difficulty. Many 
nfissionaries never become able to write their new language ; 
and many, with all their pains, are so awkward and slow at it, as 
to prefer to employ a native hand on all occasions, during their life. 

They are written at best very slowly. It may safely be 
affirmed, that it requires five hours for a missionary to write in 
tbe native character what he would write in one in his own. 
Thus four years out of five, of time spent in writing, is lost! 
The most expert native Bengalee writers have been found, by 



400 MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 

experiment, to require three times as long to write a ])age m 
tlieir own cliaracter, as it does to write the same on the Roman 
system. Any man can see how this would operate on the pro- 
gress of arts, sciences, literature, manufactures, and religion, in 
lands where all are to be begun. Should we, who are to raise 
up readers and writers for half the world, entail upon them, and 
all their posterity, miserable alphabets of a thousand different 
kinds, when, with the same labor, we can give them our own ? 

Oriental alphabets proceed from line to line, without any 
prominent mode (often without any mode) of marking emphatic 
words, projier names, quotations, pauses, accents, or even of 
separating words from one another. How would an English 
reader be puzzled in reading a page thus put together, and how 
likely to be led wholly astray ! This argument alone should 
weigh against many objections, when it is considered how im- 
])ortant it is to avoid every possible mode of misapprehension, 
ibr natives reading books on a subject so new and strange, and 
which inevitably contain many words they have never seen 
before. 

In writing these characters there is often no standard. There 
being no other estallished form of the letters, than as printed, 
and this form, in general, being so difficult and slow, each man 
alters to suit himself, when writing in haste. Hence the writing 
of one, is often scarcely legible to another, or even to himself, 
after the lapse of a few months. In our language, the written 
and printed characters are so alike, that all who read one, can 
read the other ; yet the former requires but one fifth of the time 
consumed by the latter. 

That our alphabet is competent to the expression of any lan- 
guage, is proved by the ninnber and diversity of those already 
so written ; viz. English, Welsh, Irish, German, Danish, Dutch, 
Swedish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Basque, Catalo- 
iiian, Malay, Bengalee, Hinduslanee, Malagassc, Asamese, Mah- 
ratta. New Zealand, several languages of Africa, the South Sea 
Islands, the South American dialects, and probably others. 
Except the Cherokee, for which a native invented letters, ail the 
translations and tracts which have been printed lor the Ameri- 
can aborigines, are in the Roman character, and generally, if not 
always, without diacritical marks; and certainly words more 
difficult to spell and pronounce are not found on earth. The 
inference is perfectly safe, that if these languages, in every part 
of the earth, and with every variety of articulation, can be ex- 
pressed in our alphabet, so may all others. The Roman Catholic 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 4Q1 

missionaries employ tliem even for the Chinese, Japanese, 
Siamese, and Burman. 

Tiie difficulties, inconsistencies, and often absurdities, of our 
orthagraphj form no objection to the use of our letters. So far 
as modern missionaries are concerned, these anomalies are 
avoided. English words are spelled after the fashion of the 
different languages from whence they are derived ; but in con- 
structing an orthography for an entire language at once, a per- 
fectly unitbrm system can be always adopted. 

Another great objection to tliese alpliabets is the expense they 
involve, in furnishing the nations with the word of God. A 
good font of our tyjje, of the size of this, embracing both upper 
and lower case letter, and all the variety of points, &c., costs 
about four hundred dollars. There are three sizes of Burman 
letter, and each font cost, including the support of a missionary 
to superintend the work, at least two thousand dollars. The 
j)roportion is not very different in most other Eastern tongues. 

There are probably four thousand languages yet to be fur- 
nished with the Scriptures. li\ in doing this, we resolve all into 
two thousand various alphabets, which, perhaps, is hardly possi- 
b'e, and give three sizes of type to each alphabet, it will cost 
twelve millions of dollars ! Our type, of three different sizes for 
the same languages, would cost but two million four hundred 
thousand dollars. When done, many of them, such as Persian, 
Nagari, Arabic, &c., are so formed that the types are necessarily 
and constantly breaking; making a still greater difference in the 
cost of books. The small strokes above and below (see speci- 
men page, Persian and Arabic characters) are not sustained by 
the body of the type, but run out, and can scarcely bear the force 
of the press. 

But the fii-st cost of an Oriental font is as nothing compared 
to the subsequent expenses it entails ; chiefly on account of its 
lai"ge size. It requires from three to six times the expense of 
j)ress work, and the same for paper, binding, transportation, &c. 
Judson's Bible is in four large octavos ; and yet the type is scarcely 
half the size in which Burmans commonly write. I am satis- 
fied, every thing considered, that the use of Roman letter would 
be a saving of seven tenths of all the money to be spent in 
missionary printing. 

The question, then, is not only philological. Grant all that 

tiie warmest advocates of Oriental letters could affirm; nay, 

admit for them a great superiority over ours; it comes back 

to a question of dollars and cents. The whole number of lan- 

17* 



402 MODE OF COM)UCTI?fG MISSIONS. 

guages which contain tlie word of God is less tlian a hundred, 
and about a hundred more have portions ol' it TJie people of 
some of those languages have not yet been supplied in the pro- 
jiortion of one family in a thousand. Here, then, are thousands 
of fonts of type to procure, thousands of translations to make, 
and myriads of Bibles to print; besides rousing up nominal 
Christendom to sup})ly itself While the means for accomplish- 
ing all this are so inadequate in the best modes, how can we 
honestly pursue a system which so vastly augments the diffi- 
culty? Indeed, except we use the Rouian alpliabct, the suj)[)!y 
of the Scriptures to mankind is indefinitely postponed, and 
perhaps rendered im])racticable. 

Whenever, in giving letters to a tribe that never had any, we 
adopt those of some adjacent nation, rather than our own, we 
incalculably abridge the benefit to tjie people, as well as inflict 
on the church an intolerable and useless expense. When a 
nation, like the Chinese, Hindus, or Burmans, have a written 
language, and books, and schools, of their own, we must adopt 
their characters for some of our books. But it has been found 
expedient in Hindustan to teach Bengalee, Hindee, &c., in the 
Roman character. Dictionaries and translations have been so 
published ; and it is not certain but that, even in such a country, 
the use of the native alphabets may be wholly superseded. 

Against all the reasons for preferring the Roman al[)habet, 1 
know of no respectable objection. In all the world, the mass of 
readers are to be raised up by efforts yet to be made; and they 
may as easily be taught in one character as another ; nay, far more 
easily in the Roman than any other. There is no valuable lit- 
erature in any pagan language to be displaced by a new charac- 
ter. On the contrary, the rendeiing obsolete of the mass of 
impurity, error, and absurdity now existing, is a powerful argu- 
ment in favor of the Romanizing system. By teaching through 
the medium of our alphabet, w-e shut out from the J'upil, and 
gradually render obsolete, the mass of abominations now con- 
stituting the literature of such nations. AVe would thus avoid 
several of those evils which now attend upon our schools, and 
which have been mentioned under that head. To get rid, by 
any process, of the stupendous obstruction now presented by 
pagan literature, would be a magnificent achievement. 

6. The recent plan of sending missionary physicians, should 
be very sparingly prosecuted. 

It may be that a sense of failure in regard to direct evangelical 
labors, or a love of novelty, renders iiopular the sending out of 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 403 

physicians. Many are already in tlie field ; and fi-om various di- 
rections the call is made, "Send ns out accomplished [)liysicians." 
For some fields, it is avowed, that no others are wanted at first. 

Or the hope may be, to gain respect and confidence, and thus 
open a door for Clu-istianity. But Christianity needs no such 
usher. We are pointed to the miracles of Christ and the apos- 
tles. But these were lor conviction and proof, not for attrac- 
tiveness or insinuation. Hence they were not all of healing. 
Some of them inflicted death, others blindness. They with- 
ered fig-trees, destroyed swine, or struck down enemies. To 
assert that we need a substitute for miracles will not comport 
with the received doctiine that miracles have answered their 
end, and passed away. If those of the first age are still sufii- 
cient proof, why seek a substitute ? If the immediate effects of 
miracles are now necessary, we must " ask, and we shall receive " 
power to work them. 

It is not clear tliat a physician, practising gratuitously among 
the heathen, opens a door for his missionary brother. It may 
even tend to throw him into the shade, and j)rejudice his use- 
fulness. One may be admired and patronized, while the other 
is regarded as a mere supernumerary. He may acquire per- 
sonal esteem and confidence ; but how this is transferred to his 
l)reaching and proselyting brother, to Christianity as a system, or 
to successors, is not plain. The cause and effect do not seem to 
corres})ond. 

The religion of the heathen is every where a religion of jnerit 
and demerit. Of disinterested benevolence he knows nothing, 
till he is made to understand it by the cross of Christ. All the 
labors of a missionary, which appear mci"itorious, are regarded as 
efforts to improve his own condition, now or hereafter. If the 
physician, by intimacy with his missionary brethren, by giving 
of tracts, &c., give cause to suspect that his real object is to 
introduce Christianity, he incurs as much jealousy as his breth- 
ren, whose primary business is to make direct evangelical efforts. 
"In vain is the net spread in sight of an}' bird." If he shows no 
desire to introduce and recommend Christianity, how can he be 
paving the way for his evangelical brethren ? 

Extended and gratuitous medical services may have the in- 
jurious effect of conferring upon the mission the appearance of 
opulence. The supply of medicines olwiously involves great 
expense. The heathen sees them given away profusely, every 
day, to scores of utter strangers, from whom no remuneration or 
service is accepted. It is natural that he should infer that the 



404 MODE OF CO.NUUCTING MISSIONS. 

individual and private charity of tlie physician, is not competent 
to such expenditure. He may suspect the hand of a foreign 
govei-ninent, preparing for future encroacijmeuts. He will cer- 
tainly suspect something, though liis tear be no more rational than 
that which lias prevailed very extensively in Burmah, that when 
a certain number of disciples are obtained, we mean to take 
them home and eat them ! 

It should not be forgotten that the history of missionary phy- 
sicians, from Felix Carey till now, contains many discouraging 
facts. It shows the danger of being drawn away to posts of 
pagan lionor ; or making shipwreck of Christian character; or 
becoming nwe physicians. 

It apj)ears to me that an affectionate and judicious missionaiy, 
male or female, with a few well-known medicines, good books 
written for family use, and some experience, will be able to do 
all that ought to be done in this line, in most places. Mrs. Wade 
and Mi's. Hancock have practised extensively, and with great 
success. Such a mode is as well calculated to impress natives 
with the benevolence of Christians, though it may not so as- 
tonish them with the superiority of Europeans. 

7. Every unnecessary expanse in the mode of living should 
be studiously avoided. 

The unavoidable difference between the missionary and the 
natives, in most cases, is very great. Native assistants seldom 
receive more than a tenth or fifteenth of tlie salary of a mission- 
ary. Rulers and princes, at some stations, are unable to live as 
the missionaries do, even where considerable sacrifices are made, 
and where a style of living is adopted, which many of the con- 
tributors at home would regard as involving jiositive and serious 
hardships. 

The difficulty is aggravated, where the missionary aims at the 
style of genteel Europeans around him. It is altogether unde- 
sirable to see carved inaiiogaiiy sufiis, covered with crimson silk, 
mahogany book-cases, engravings, cut-glass, silver forks, &c., in 
the house of a missionary ; the house itself resembling our hand- 
some country-seats. Such a mr,de of living unavoidably imposes 
great restraint on the approach of natives. However accessible 
the missionary may hold himself, the poor inquirer will scarcely 
venture into such premises; or, if he do, will not be able to over- 
come an opjM-essive sense of inferiority, and perhaps intrusion. 
Even in Burmah, where no missionary so much as ajjproaches 
tliis style of living, I have seen inquirers listen eagerly for a few 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 



405 



moments, and tlien become absorbed in admiration of the fluted 
leg of a table, or the joints of a chair. 

Several missionaries have confessed to me that, on their first 
arrival in the East, they were shocked at tlie style in which they 
found their brethren living. Yet tliey had been carried away by 
the current. And so, generally, will be their successors. A man 
does not like, on his first arrival, to set up for a reformer. He 
feels as though he sliould have more experience, and knowledge 
of the country. But when, after a few years' residence, he is 
convinced that another mode is preferable and practicable, he 
discovers that to attempt a change will not only involve him in 
difficulties with his brethren, but will require changes in his own 
modes, which neither he nor his wife may have strength of mind 
to accomplish. 

It is not necessary to adopt the costume, or all the customs of 
the natives; nor is it in general possible lor the missionary to live 
so cheaply. To do either, would abridge usefulness, and hazard 
health. Many tilings are absolute necessaries to one, which to 
the other seem highly luxurious. But this difference should not 
be increased by the use of superfluities deemed genteel and 
suitable at home. Cheap fabrics make raiments as truly com- 
fortable as costly ones ; and ornaments and embroideries cer- 
tainly add no comfort. Plain furniture, made by the natives or 
himself, should be preferred to that which is elegant, even if the 
latter could be had for nothing. And in erecting a house, no 
object should be regarded but health and convenience. 

The example of a missionai-y should tend to elevate the people 
ill temporal things, and spread a love of neatness and order. 
But expensiveness defeats this result. If the materials of our 
refinements and conveniences are too costly, the natives cannot 
have them. I know certain missionaries who have their sofas 
and bedsteads made of bamboo, at an expense not exceeding ten 
cents each. Their people are thus taught cleanliness and com- 
fort, and cease to repose on the floor. The same individuals 
dress in the cheapest fabrics, and have brought their people to 
])Ossess suitable changes of raiment, instead of wearing one filthy 
garment till it could be worn no more. 

A great superiority of living, on the part of the missionary, 
will almost certainly excite envy — a feeling tending more than 
any other to obstruct usefulness. "Who can stand before 
envy ? " A minister in our own country could scarcely hope 
for success if there existed a proportionate disparity between 



406 MODE OF COiNDUCTI.\G MISSIONS. 

him and liis people. In places where there are many Euro- 
peans, the evil will not be so much felt, if the missionary live in 
far less style than tliey. In these places only, have I seen such 
modes of living as have been just named. And if these very 
houses are compared, not with those of the natives, but those of 
Europeans, they will generally appear to be as much humbler 
than those, as ministers' houses, in this country, are humbler than 
their wealthy parishioners. In the I'emote stations, a missionary 
should take a still humbler mode. The natives cannot know 
what luxuries are enjoyed with us, even by the poor. They just 
compare the missionaries with themselves, and can scarcely 
associate the idea of self-denial with a mode of living which so 
greatly transcends their own. 

The effect on tlie missionary himself is injurious. His anticipa- 
tions had comprised great and unavoidable self-denial in regard 
to house, food, climate, and other bodily comforts. He is, there- 
fore, in danger of habitually endeavoring to make this self-denial 
as small as possible. Those who have preceded him will ad- 
duce arguments or excuses with regard to healtli, respectability, 
&c. Their example, the wish to preserve peace, and his early 
habits, will all tend to carry him on to the very position, which, on 
first seeing occupied by others, had shocked his feelings. He 
is then no longer the man he was, and intended to be. His 
conscience is either smothered or troubled ; his success is hin- 
dered ; and tliere is great danger that his early devotedness and 
hope of usefulness may subside into formality and quiescence. 

The blessed Master is the great pattern of a missionary. But 
he did not endeavor to live in a condition resembling, as near as 
l)ossible, that which he had left. Nor should the missionary, 
sojourning amid degraded heathen, seek to retain as far as possi- 
b'e the refinements and gratifications of his own land. Let him 
renounce them, in fact, as, on his knees, when he gave himself to 
this work, he renounced them in anticipation. 

Beside the etfect of an appearance of luxury on the natives, 
every useless expense should be avoided on the ground of its 
raising a barrier against the universality of our operations. 
Though money will probably be raised in greater amount, and 
with greater facility, yet it must be remembered how small a 
body the Protestants of Eiu'ope and America are, compared with 
the entire human race, and how great is the work to be done* 
Presuming that, in every country, native pastors should be raised 
up in suflicicnt numbers to perform the entire labor of evan- 
gelists, we still need thousands of missionaiies to make begin- 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 407 

nings in every tribe, to prepare these native pastors, to make 
books and translations, establish schools, &c. 

As our societies grow old, widows and children multiply ; 
and soon very serious sums will be required for these. As an 
exemplar, we may advert to the Moravians, who have longest 
maintained modern missions. Nearly all the contributions lioin 
their own body are absorbed on matters which refer to the past ; 
and their present missionary work is sustained by the contribu- 
tions of other Christians. By the last annual report I can obtain, 
it appears that their receipts, from all sources, are about £11,000; 
about half of which is fi'om their own community. 

Total expenses for all stations £0100 

Paid also within the year — 

to 20 retired and disabled ) £cia ig in 

missionaries ) 

to 3fi widows 334 16 7 

education of 95 missionary ) iaoo 

children ) 

20 boys and 11 girls apprenticed 1629 

Contingencies 898 4900 13 5 

£11000 13 5 



It might give rise to unwarrantable surmises, if, in a work so 
crowded with facts, directly and indirectly connected with mis- 
sions, nothing should be said of the salaries received by mis- 
sionaries ; especially while speaking of their modes of living. 
Nor am I concerned to avoid that subject. But the reader will 
bear in mind several considerations — 1. That, in preceding chap- 
ters, I have borne full testimony to the purity and zeal of mis- 
sionaries as a body. 2. By far the larger part of them endure 
s.rious privations as to modes of living, and all of them endure, 
in other respects, what few Christians are willing to encounter. 
3. Though their income may far transcend the poor semi-civil- 
ized or perhaps barbarous tribes around them, it falls far short 
of what Europeans of similar education and talents command, 
ill the same places, and their mode of living is proportionally 
humble. 4. Those of them whose style of living has just been 
mentioned, as in my opinion uiisuitable, do but copy numerous 
ministers, and still more numerous private Christians, in our 
own country, who live in costly houses, and see no harm in using 
just such articles as have been named. 5. It is certainly too 



403 MODE OF CONDUCTI>'G MISSIONS. 

much to expect that an appointment as a missionary should, as 
by a charm, at once raise a man to a fervor of piety, contempt 
of earth, courage in dissenting from custom, and readiness to 
endure privations whicii none of his church at home have at- 
tained, and for which he has had neither training nor example. 
The difficulty can only be met by the adoption of stricter systems 
of expenditure by all Christians at home and abroad. Missiona- 
ries will carry abroad just that sort and degree of piety they have 
been trained to at home. 6. The chaplains of the East India 
Company receive 775 rujjees per month, and rank as majors, with 
full reriring pension at the end of the term of service, which, I 
believe, is twenty-two years. There are ninety chaplains, whose 
salaries and places of worship cost the Company annually 
438,000 dollars. This last statement is made to constitute a 
standard of comparison by which the salaries of the missiona- 
ries may be measured. 

The English Baptist Missionary Society pay, in Hindustan, 
about 200 rupees per month, for a fami'y, without allow- 
ances. In large towns, a very humble house costs from fifty 
to eighty rupees per month. One of these brethren stated to me 
that his annual expenses for medicine and medical attendance 
averaged 250 nipees. The missionaries of the Scotch General 
Assembly receive, in Calcutta, 400 rupees per month, to cover 
every thing. IVIissionaries from the London Missionary Society, 
at the Cape of Good Hope, receive £100 per annum for a fomily, 
without allowances, except to such as reside in Cape Town. In 
large cities of India, this society pays sometimes doulile this 
amount. In the South Sea Islands, the allowance for a family 
is but £7.5. The English General Baptist Missionary Society pay 
their missionaries at Orissa about 1200 rupees j)er annum, for 
a family, without allowances. A missionary from the Caspian 
and Black Seas informed me, that the salaries there were 
£80 for a married couple and familj'. A self-supported unmar- 
ried missionary from Patna, in Bengal, informed me that his 
expenses at that place were £70 per annum. 

Whether the English Wesleyan Society pay fixed salaries, 
I have no means of knowing; but from the only rejwrt of that 
society I have at hand, (1835,) it appears that, in the Madras dis- 
trict, fi\se missionaries, four native assistants, the j)assages home 
of two missionaries, and grants to schools, cost £2116. In Cey- 
lon, nine missionaries, twelve nati\e assistaiits, grants to schools, 
and the return passage of a fsmily, cost £0032. In Sierra 
Leone, three missionai'ies cost £286; and in New South Wales, 



MODE OF CO.NDUCTI.NG MISSIONS. 400 

a Station witli three missionaries cost £701. The Am. Board of 
Commissioners for Foreign Missions have not fully adopted tiie 
system of fixed salaries, having generally allowed each iiimily 
to exj)end what is requisite. In Southern India, they pay a mar- 
ried couple £150 per annum, with allowances for children an<l 
house rent. Missionaries in the East from the American Baptist 
Board, have 100 Company rupees per month tor a married couple, 
and allowance for children, house rent, medical expenses, and 
travelling. 

8. There should be more direct preaching of the word, pub- 
licly and li-oni house to house. 

Of all ])arts of his work, direct preacliing looks most attractive 
to the missionary on leaving home, and becomes in general most 
repulsive in the field. One of the best missionaries now alive 
remarked that there was nothing so difficult for him to resist as a 
repugnance against coming iii contact with the natives I This 
is the grand o'ject of those who design to devote themselves to 
foreign service. To sit beneath some friendly shade, imparting 
to heathen the words ol" eternal life, is their beau ideal, their en- 
rapturing anticij)ation, their expected reward, lor leaving friends 
and home. But when they ap()roach the reality, they find the 
romance of this hope turned into the substantial material for 
disgust, weariness, and desjjair. 

Sopliisms, absurdities, iiilse reasonings, extreme ignorance, 
malicious opposition, unworthy sus})icions, and inveterate preju- 
dices, must be perpetually encountered. These are rendered 
still more formidable, for the first few years, lor want of a profi- 
ciency in the language, and a knowledge of the national re- 
ligion and literature. To teach school, to study, to translate, 
to survey new fields, &c., have none of these disagreeable 
concomitants, and are not so totally at Viiriance with previous 
habits and feelings. They have the charm, too, of promising 
evident and innnediate fruit ; and of seeming to prepare the 
way for successors. 

Thus the highest self-denial required of a missionary is in that 
very part of his work where he thought he should want none. 
He is unprepared for the demand, and in too many cases is 
turned aside to collateral ])ursuits. 

This is an age in which the proper ministry of the word is in 
danger of being undervalued. It is an age of invention and 
activity, in religious as. well as connnon matters, and the mecha- 
nism of Christianity is in danger of transcending the simplicity 
of the Scripture njodel, or at least of attracting superabundant 
18 



4J0 MODE OF C0.\DOCTI.\G MISSIONS. 

aUeniion. One eminent mimstev cvlWs infant-sc'iools "tlie railroad 
to the niilleuniuni." Some declare preacliing to be "the smallest 
])art of a minister's duty." Others atlirm tliat conversions among 
llie heathen are not to be expected, till tliey are enabled to un- 
derstand the evidences of divine revelation, and, therefore, that 
" schools are the grand means of converting the heathen." The 
same sentiments are rung in tJje ears of a missionary l>y his 
countrymen abroad. Ho has their countenance in schools, 
translations, &c. ; but if he " preach the gospel " in high-wajs 
and by-ways, he often incurs the imputation of ianaticism and 
folly. Every temptation is thus offered to slight tlie proper 
ministry of the word, and give weak faith a resting-place on 
human schemes. 

It is often remarked that the apostles did not resort to schools, 
Bibles, and tracts, because the art of printing was not then in- 
vented ; that learning was more diffused; &c. But it must be 
sacredly remembered, that the Lord gave his apostles a system 
of means not founded on the then state of society in that part 
of Asia, but for all possible conditions of society, in all the world, 
to the end of thne. It is a system founded on the nature of reli- 
gion and the nature of man ; and no changes of outward condi- 
tion will warrant us to invent another. 

All modes of doing good should undoubtedly have a place in 
our system of means ; but let us have a care, lest we dis|»arage, 
or make subordinate, that which is of our Lord's own appoint- 
ment, and which, above all others, should engage our energies, 
" By the foolishness of preaching," it pleases God to save men. 
It has always been the grand instrument of conversion. We 
must always rely upon it as such. Other services demand a por- 
tion of time, and in a proper division of labor, where there are 
several missionaries, some one brother may take one of these as 
his department. But, as a general rule, the first object and 
business of each, is strictly ministerial service. President Way- 
land, in his address to missionaries leaving Boston in July, 1834 
insists on this point. " Nor is it enough that you be laborious ; 
your labor must be exclusive ; it must be devoted in sing'eness 
of heart to the conversion of soids to Christ. This work is sure!y 
of itself extensive enough to occupy all your time, and all your 
talents ; and manifestly no other can vie with it in importance. 
You go not abioad to be linguists, nor lexicographers, nor bota- 
nists, nor philosophers, nor statesmen, nnr politicians, but am- 
bassadors of Christ. Remember, we always expect an ambassa- 
dor to keep entirely aloof from all entanglements with the affairs 



MODE OF CO^DLrCTI^'G MISSiOiVS. 4J| 

of the parties to which he is sent, and devote himself exclusively 
to the interest of tlie party by which he is connnissioned. 1 do 
not say that these iuquiiies are not important ; I only say that 
they are not your duly. Like Neheniiah, you are doing a great 
work, and you cannot come down." 

Of the same opinion was Swartz, who reckoned that he had 
been tiie means of converting two thousand persons ; and of 
lirainerd, who also gathered many souls. The following re- 
marks by a distinguished Baptist minister, now living in Edin- 
burgh, seem full of piety and good sense: — 

"Much have we heard, indeed, in modern times, of the noble 
invention of printing, and much respecting the power of educa- 
tion ; and I do not imagine that any candid reader, who has 
proceeded thus far, can suppose that the writer is indisposed to 
give to each its own appropriate place. At the same time, he 
conceives that they may not only be jierverted, but prevented irom 
doing that good which they otherwise might acconjplish. For ex- 
ample, if they be permitted to occupy that place in our esteem and 
expectation, which belongs to a divine and sovereign appointment, 
then they may not only become as chaff' when compared to the 
wheat, but awaken the jealousy of Him who will not give his 
glory to another. Our employment of education only, and with 
all the energy which the art of printing has given to it, may turn 
out to be nothing more than giving activity to the powers of the 
mind, without directing and controlling their movements. 

"Education will humanize and improve, in most instances; but 
to save from ultimate destruction, properly speaking, never was 
w ithin its province, and never will be. Yet since the time in 
which many have been roused to see its necessit}', there has 
been a phraseology often used respecting it by no means war- 
rantable. Education, but above all, scriptural education, will 
do much. There will always be an undescribable distance 
between a people so favored, and any other left without such 
means. But if we ex{)ect more from it than it has ever pro- 
duced, and above all, if we apjtly to it the language furnished to 
us in the Scripture, and which is there exclusively employed 
with reference to an institution of God's own sovereign appoint- 
ment, we may be left to witness the impotence of education, 
instead of its power. Hence we have read of the system of 
some one of these educational societies, being adapted for the 
regeneration of Ireland ; and the terms employed in Scripture 
to the laborers in the vineyard of God, have been unsparingly 
era])loycd by religious people to the exertions of schoolmasters, 



412 MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 

or those who superintend them. This is not merely incorrect, 
but it is unwise and unwarrantable. Eveiy one knows, tliat, in 
all sucli cases of agency, every thing dej)ends upon the expecta- 
tions and intentions of the agent ; but the language refoned to 
is teacliing us to expect from him, what, in a thousand instances, 
the agent neither intends or expects himseltl The sciiooiniaster 
may have gone abroad, and, if a man of principle, will do great 
good; but to apply to him or his efforts the language of Sacred 
Writ, which regards another order of men and another exercise, 
is calculated to injure the work of his hands, as well as hlind 
our own minds with respect to another and a higher duty." * 

While I am indulging in quotation, 1 will add the following, 
from a distinguished missionary — Melvill Home, who puts the 
following words into the month of an objector, in the shape of 
an apostrophe to the " Lord of the harvest." " If thou wilt force 
us to cultivate this unpromising field, do not think of sending us 
out immediately, but let schoolmasters go to receive the first fire, 
and teach the little children reading and writing, and then will 
we go and enter into their labors ; for the experience of ages 
has taught us, that where preaching of the gospel makes one 
Christian, education makes ten. Hence, instead of preaching 
first to the parents, and then establishing schools ibr the educa- 
tion of the children, as the apostles did, (who knew that tho 
sword of the spirit was of heavenly temper, an instrument into 
which the God of glory had wrought all his attributes, we, 
having lost the art of using it, and that arm which gives it 
the demonsti'ation of the Spirit and of power,) we go to work 
another way, by educating children first; and many are of 
opinion that the best way of enlightening, is by putting the 
moon in the sun's sphere, and having children to instruct their 
parents, rather than parents to teach their children!" 

Preachers must not be reluctant to itinerate. It will not 
be necessary, except among a few tribes, to dispense with a set- 
tled home, and to wander with a wandering flock. Still, few 
missionaries should confine themselves at home. There are 
jungles, small islands, and pestilent districts, accessible to for- 
eigners only for a ftiw months in tlie year, which can only be 
reached by itinerants. There are advantages too, in all places, 



* Anderson's "Ireland without tho Jlinistry of the Word in her native 
Language." "The Domestic Coni=titution," so largely quoted from by James, 
in his Family Monitor, and republished in this country under the title of " Book 
for Parents," is by this author. 



MODE OF CO.NDUCTIiSG MISSIO.XS. 4J3 

peculiai- to such itineracies. There is upon the missionary sg 
employed, a benign and impressive aspect of disinterested 
benevolence, not easily misconstrued. Plis privations, inconve- 
niences, dangers, and exertions convince even the heathen of 
his love of souls. He honors them by the condescension and 
confidence with which he eats the food they prepare, and sleeps 
on the mat they spread for him. He becomes acquainted with 
native character, where it has not been modified by foreign iofiu- 
ence, and is thus assisted both to preach and to prepare tracts. 
He has opportunities for calm and i-epeated conversations with 
individuals at their own home. He escapes tlie pestilent pres- 
ence of ungodly nominal Christians. The circunistances of his 
own superior living, are not present to do injury. 

Not for a moment would I countenance that gadding and 
discursive spirit which entices men to leave their sphere ; nor 
that romance which loves to visit distant and celebrated places ; 
nor that love of fame which is gratified by being able to send 
racy journals to the magazines. It can be of little use to 
scatter far and near, seed which neither we nor others can water. 
The itineracy should for the most part be performed within a 
given limit, visiting the same places again and again, as the 
apostles did. 

Preaching must be maintained in contradistinction to con- 
versation and disputing. I know that it cannot always be such 
preaching as we have at home. Questions must be permitted, 
objections occasionally answered, explanations made, and much 
of our own formality dispensed with. But it must be legitimate 
preaching. The heathen ai'e very glad to dispute ; and do it in a 
very wearisome, provoking, and often subtle manner. When 
we enter into their sophistries, and recondite arguments, we 
make Christianity contend with the intellect, instead of the con- 
science, and our great advantage is lost. Paul's disputings in the 
school of Tyrannus are quoted. But it should be remembered 
that diuloyofjEvog, (dicdogomenos,) here rendered "disputing," is 
the very word used of other occasions where pros and cons 
were not thought of; such as " Paul was long preaching," Acts 
XX. 9 ; " He reasoned in the synagogue every Sabbath-day," Acts 
xviii. 4 ; " He preached unto them, ready to depart on the morrow," 
Acts XX. 7 ; « He reasoned of righteousness," «&c.. Acts xxiv. 9. 
Missionaries will sometimes be obliged to dispute ; and so were 
the apostles. But they are destitute of many advantages enjoyed 
by the latter. Those disputes were with men who believed 
in the Old Testament, or who held great principles in commou 



414 MODE or CO.XDUCTI.NG MISSIONS. 

with themselves. Tliey were to prove, to persons who expected a 
Messiah, that Jesus was tliat Christ ; or were based upon premises 
which the antagonists, or their own poets, fully admitted. So 
did our Savior sometimes dispute ; but we have numerous cases 
where he dexterously avoided foolish questions or philosophical 
subtilties. He parried where he might have triumphed, and 
chose the more inmiediate, if not the only avenue, to conviction. 

What has been gained by the repeated triumphs of speculative 
theology over science, politics, and heresy ? Over and over the 
battle has been fought, consuming whole lives, and filling up 
whole libraries. Over and over have infidels, heretics. Papists, 
and Jews, been defeated. But new champions rise. The old 
ground is taken, or some novelty advanced ; and in every age, 
the war continues. At this very day our press teems with works 
on the evidences of Christianity, and in ojjposition to errors 
already a thousand times refuted. In countries where Christian- 
ity has so triumphed, as to make worldly and political men con- 
fess it, and weave it into the very texture of social and civil 
society, what do we see but a dead orthodoxy, an unconverted 
priesthood, simony, secularity, and jjride ? Christianitj' has 
made its greatest triumphs where it has stood despised, hated, 
and cast out, by the learning, the philosophy, and the power of 
the world. Why should nfissionaries repeat that struggle which 
has a thousand times ended in a bootless triumph ? It is not a 
man's learning, philosophy, or superstition, that precludes his 
conversion, but the opposition of his carnal heart. To over- 
come this, God forbid that we should confide in aught else than 
the doctrine of " Christ crucified, to the Jews a stumbling-block, 
and to the Gentiles foolishness." Let us never, never forget that 
" God hath chosen the foolishness of this world to conlbund the 
wise, and low things, and things that are despised, and things 
whicii are not, to bring to nought the things that are, that no 
flesh should glory in his presence." 

9. Regular churches, with pastors and deacons, should be 
formed at the earliest possible period, in every place. 

It is of great consequence to put our woi'k on a footing which 
may secure stability and increase, without the presence of a 
missionary. Ordained native ministers are very few.* Church 
order and discipline are not sufficiently understood by the dis- 
ciples. The missionary is all in all ; and at his departure or 

* III all the Burman and Karen churches I found but one 5 in some mis- 
sions, none J and no where, any adequate supply. 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 415 

death, every trace of his work may disappear. It is true, such 
churches at first would seldom be able to stand alone. But if 
tiiej' ever do, they must first have this feeble beginning. There 
Avere great and important reasons why Clnist instituted churches. 
Even higher advantages result from them, in heathen lands, than 
among ourselves. Without the mutual brotherly watchiulness 
which they secure, feeble members camiot receive adequate 
assistance. It is true, few are as quahfied as is desirable for 
the imposition of hands. But the apostles, in resolving to 
ordain elders in every church, must have met the same difficulty. 
If no encouraging degree of fitness be found in any member, 
we may take a biother from some other church. To these 
should be committed, for obvious reasons, most of the preaching, 
discipline, and administration of ordinances. They should be 
Ijonored in the presence of the people. Their support should, as 
far as possible, be derived from the converts. They should be 
sedulously watched over and aided. They should have associa- 
tions, and ministers' meetings. They should meet the missionary 
at stated periods, and be aided, as liir as possible, in acquiring a 
knowledge of Scripture history and doctrine. In many cases, 
they should be changed, on the plan of Methodist circuits. Some 
might attend half the year at a jjroper seminary. Younger ones 
should be placed at such an institution for several years. But 
of this more under the next head. 

A similar appointment and training should be had for deacons, 
exhorters, and church clerks. The guiding influence of the 
missionary should be exerted as unseen as possible. Every 
effort should be made, to bring out the capacity and activity 
of the members, so that the death or removal of the missionary, 
should be injurious in the least possible degree. 

10. The qualifications of native assistants should receive more 
attention. 

Tlie importance of this class of auxiliaries can scaixely be too 
liighly estimated. Without risk of health, and with little ex- 
]>ense or inconvenience, they can carry the tidings of salvation 
where a missionary cannot go, or may net be sent, for an age. 
They can travel, eat, sit, and lodge, as the natives do. Between 
those and themselves, there is not that awful distance which 
can scarcely be overconie by a missionary. Their knowledge 
of the language is complete, which can seldom be said of a 
foreigner. They know, from experience, the exact temptations, 
doubts, difficulties, and prejudices of their hearers. They can 
talk with an inquirer, often and long, without di-awing oi)positiou 



416 MODE Of CONDUUTI.NG MISSIONS. 

upon liini, before lie has become enlightened and firm enongh to 
endure it. To be seen conversing a tew times with a missionary, 
or to go repeatedly to his house, or chapel, excites almost as 
great opposition, as a profession of Christianity. Thus a man's 
mind must be made up to encounter exceeding difficulties, be- 
fore he has become sufficiently acquainted with the missionary's 
argmnents, to know whetlier he will endure sufferings lor tlie 
new religion or not; that is to say, he must submit to be per- 
secuted, before he knows whether the system is worth being 
persecuted for. 

Various reasons of this sort, some adapted to the condition of 
one country, and some to that of another, show the duty of fos- 
tering this branch of our force. Unordained natives have indeed 
been employed, and in some places to a great extent. And to 
thtir labors are traceable very numerous conversions. But it 
seems necessary to bestow upon them a much greater measure 
of mental cultivation and religious knowledge. Had half the 
])ains been thus bestowed, which have been expended on connnou 
schools, how great would have been the gain I 

Without some additional mental cultivation, doctrinal knowl- 
edge, and practical graces, native assistants are not able to avail 
themselves of their peculiar advantages ; some of which have just 
been named. It is well known that scarcely one of them is able to 
act alone ; and that, though so useful, when sustained and guided 
by a good missionary, they have run into manifold evils, when 
left to themselves. Why is this ? They possess piety, zeal, and 
talents. It must be owing to the superior intelligence and ac- 
quired advantages of the missionary. Let us, then, lead them into 
that knowledge of the word of God, and that measure of devotion, 
which at present they have no means of obtaining. 

Slender would be the qualifications of a minister with us, 
whose opportunities had been no greater than those of native 
preachers. Abstract from liim all that his mother and father 
taught him, all he learned at infant or Sunday school, from the 
moral maxims of his horn-books, his copy-slips, his general read- 
ing, and the restraints of Christian society ; put in the place of this, 
every degrading, polluting, and erroneous thing, learned by a 
heathen child, at home, at school, and abroad ; take away the 
intellectual benefits of an academic or collegiate course ; abolish 
oil his knowledge of the evidences of Christianity, history, chro- 
nology, geography, prophecy, miracles, and the state of the 
world ; all he ever gained by intercourse with eminent saints. 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 4^7 

or a i)erusal of their biographies; all the helps lie has had 
from commentators, critics, sermons, anniversaries, associations, 
reliii;ious j)eriodicals, and intercourse with enlightened fellow- 
ministers ; in fine, leave him nothing but some portions of God's 
word, and a few evangelical tracts ; and add to him a plenitude 
of errors and malpractices accjuired in a life of Gentile abomina- 
tions, — and you will have the present qualifications of a native 
assistant. 

Some regular institution seems wanting, in every mission, for 
the express purpose of instructing those who give evidences of a 
call to this work. Advantages, similar in kind, if not in extent, 
to those enjoyed by young ministers at home, should be placed 
within their reach. A supply of assistants, thus educated, would 
leave leisure to the missionary for necessary translations and 
revisions ; for exercising a general pastoral care over a large dis- 
trict ; for exploring new fields ; for corresponding with the socie- 
ties at home ; and for other duties, which can now only be done 
at a great sacrifice of pastoral pursuits. 

By no other course does it now appear that we can send the 
gospel into all the earth. We cannot hope to send forth from 
ourselves the hundredth part of an adequate supply of ministers 
for six hundred millions of pagans, at an annual expense of from 
five hundred to one thousand dollars for each family. Nor could 
we consent to lay the foundations of Christianity, over so large 
a portion of the earth, by native preachers so ignorant of the 
system as those we now have. Without raising these qualifica- 
tions, they will soon be despised by the very youth, whom, by 
Inmdreds and thousands are now being educated in missionaiy 
and government schools. 

11. A considerable number of the most promising converts 
and younger preachers should be taught the English language. 

It is dismaying to compute the period which must elapse 
before the heathen can be supplied, in their own languages, with 
the word of God. Who, then, can j)redict the time when those 
languages shall contain a supply of works in ecclesiastical his- 
tory, biblical criticism, theology, and practical piety? Who is to 
give them books of science and art ? If, now, we would impart 
to our missionary i3U]>ils the benefits of such studies, we are re- 
stricted to wearisome oral instructions, demanding, on the whole, 
an amount of time equal to tohal ivould be necessary to tench them 
En<j;lish. Beside, instructions unsustained by reading are less 
perfectly acquired, and the amount obtained is in danger of being 



413 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 



tbrgotteii. At best, when the pupil leaves the institution, his 
progress is terminated ; and terniinated too, as all school-studies 
are, at the threshold of the subjects. 

By giving our young convert the English language, we set 
before him the whole temple of knowledge, and present him 
with the key. Subjects which would otherwise have remained 
forever sealed will be fully open to his inspection. He has but 
to use his own powers, and he may pursue an indefinite progress. 
AVith an enriched mind, trained habits of thinking, and a culti- 
vated heart, he goes forth among his people "a workman that 
iieedeth not to he ashamed." Let but the reader ask liimself 
what benefit he has gained, merely, by a dozen books, such as 
tiie Saint's Rest, Law's Serious Call, Watts on the Mind, Pilgrim's 
Progress, the works of Brooks, Mather, Flavel, Charnock, &c., 
and decide whether, even for this, he would net have done well 
to master a language ? Did he ever gain so much from his 
Latin, Greek, French, Italian, or German, or all together, as a 
heathen convert would gain from a knowledge of English ? Our 
language is now becoming the religious language of mankind, 
and perhaps the scientific also. It is to be to the East, what 
Greek was to Rome, or Latin was, a century or two ago, to 
Europe. Already does it abound with works of imagination, 
specimens of eloquence, stores of history, speculations on 
metaphysics, morals, government, law, commerce, scientific re- 
searches, and mechanical inventions, immensely more valuable 
than was ever extant in all the ancient languages. As to religion, 
it probably contains more valuable books than all other lan- 
guages put together. 

Add, therefore, to the important advantages already enjoyed by 
the native preacher, merely those which the ability to read Eng- 
lish would confer, and he would be more valuable than almost 
any foreign missionary can be, and at the same time cost the 
church incomparably less, 

Fi'om natives able to read English, we might hope soon to see 
many valuable translations. Men translate into their own lan- 
guage far more successfully than into a foreign one. They 
would do more than this — they would write oi-iginal works. 
Few translations, except of the Scriptures, will ever be very 
useful. Books, being written for our state of society, and degree 
of knowledge, do not answer for heathen. They must be 
written l)y natives, not only in native idiom, but in native modes 
of thinking, and adapted to the degree of knowledge possessed 
by the reader. Our books, on every page, take for granted 



MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 419 

certain measures of previous mental culture, wiiicli lieatiien 
readers do not possess, and for want of wliicli, the whole efibrt 
of tlie author is likely to fail. 

The difficulty of learning to read and write a language, es- 
pecially our own, is much less than learning to s[)eak it; and in 
this case, only the former is required. Indeed, the learning so 
much of a language as to gather the meaning of an author, is by 
no means an arduous undertaking. To pronounce correctly, 
and to command words fluently for conversation, is much the 
largest part of the task. This is not only unnecessary to our 
brethren, but in some cases undesirable, lest they be corrupted 
by evil intercourse, or tempted to seek secular situations of 
greater piofit. 

A native assistant has now no books to read, but the tracts 
and translations, to which his hearers have access. How can 
he hold a proper intellectual and religious snjieriority over them ? 
He ought to be versed in the true meaning of difficult passages, 
the rules of interpretation, the geography, chronology, and 
natural history of the Bible, the manners and customs of Jews, 
and other kindred studies. He should know something of 
ecclesiastical history, church government, and biblical theology. 
But in all these he has no helps in his own language, and in 
hundreds of languages there never will be any. Missionary 
money can never make translations of all these; and many years 
must elapse before there will be a religious public, creating such 
a demand for them, that they will be printed as matters of 
trade. 

In our own country, what students actually learn at college, is 
not so important as the knowledge they obtain of the sources of 
information. The wide and long vista of truth is opened be- 
fore them ; they see what is to be learned, obtain mental train- 
ing, get a knowledge of books, and leave the institution prepared 
to be successful students. Not so with native preachers. They 
set out with a modicum of biblical knowledge, precariously 
retained in their memories, and with scarcely the advantages 
of a Sunday scholar. They meet antagonists, learned in the 
prevailing system, and must contend with them, without so 
much as a proper knowledge of their own. 

12. There must be greater care taken that a station, once 
begun, should be uninterruptedly maintained. 

That this has not been the case, has seldom been the fiiult of 
missionaries. It is not easy to convey the importance of tliis 
idea to churches and directors at home ; and their arrangements 



420 MODE OF CO>'DCCTING MISSIONS. 

liave been such as to spread over as large a surface as possible, 
leaving many stations in the hands of a solitary individual. 

What would be the effect on any district of fifty, or sixty, or 
perhaps five hundred square miles, which sliould be left for one, 
two, or three years, without a minister, or a prayer-meeting, or a 
Sunday school, or, in fine, any of the means of grace? Ikit with 
us, even in such a case, there would be a thousand good influ- 
ences, public and private. Not so among the heathen. The 
death or departure of a missionary stops every thing, except a 
church have been gathered, and native pastors trained. Even 
then, all activity is suspended, and passive vutues will not abound. 
The converts will fall into errors and apostasies, if not into 
sufferings and want. 

A heathen or Mussulman, on becoming a Christian, is gener- 
ally discarded by his friends; and where caste exists, always. 
In very many cases, if the missionary do not provide him work, 
he must starve. If not so poor, yet without the missionary, how 
shall he contend with the difficulties of his situation, and the 
evils of his former habits.' He is left without daily instruction, 
without pious intercourse, without a shield from tyranny. The 
little band, gathered by years of toil, is in a few months 
scattered ; the enemy triumphs ; confidence in the continuance 
of the station is destroyed ; and the next missionary is often led 
to affirm, as several have done to me, that it would have been 
better if no predecessor had ever labored there. 

Many contingencies may cause a station to be suspended 
where a missionary is alone. There can be no security against 
it, except by placing two brethren at every station ; and at 
some, still more. They need not always be in the same com- 
pound, or even m the same village ; but should not be so far 
apart as to prevent one from taking an effective temporaiy cluu-ge 
of the department of the other, in case of death, sickness, or 
absence. 

It seems to have been one of the most fatal errors of modern 
missions to disregard, so generally, the New Testament example 
in this particular. Our Lord sent both the seventy and the 
twelve, two by two. When he had ascended, the apostles con- 
tinued the same plan. They either proceeded forth in pairs, or 
took a younger evangelist as a "partner and fellow-helper." 
The Holy Ghost gave sanction to this mode, when lie called for 
the separation of Barnabas and Saul to a particular field. How 
touching and instructive are Paul's feelings, when separated 
from his official companion, though in the midst of distinguished 



MODE OF COiVDCCTI-VG MISSIONS. 421 

successes ! " When I came to Troas to preach, and a door was 
opened unto me ol" tlie Lord, I had no lest in my spirit, because 
1 found 7iot Titus ; so, taking my leave, I went into .Alacedouia." 
When Titus rejoiued him, he was in tlie midst of disappoint- 
ment and difficulty ; but his heart was innnediately made whole. 
lie then said, "I am filled, I am exceeding joylui, in all our 
tribulation ; for though, w hen we came into 3Iacedonia, our flesh 
had no rest, and we were troubled on every side, (without were 
fightuigs, and within were feiirs,) yet God comforted us by the 
coming of Titus," 2 Corinthians ii, ]2, 13, and vii. 4-6. 

It is believed by some judicious brethren abroad, that some 
missionaries have died in consequence of lonesomeness, dis- 
traction, care, and excessive exertion. 

13. It is important to establish a greater division of labor. 

Hitherto the same missionary has been compelled to be 
pastor, itinerant, Sunday school teacher, schoolmaster, trans- 
lator, author, tract- distributor, proof-reader, physician, nurse, 
housekeeper, and perhaps printer and bookbinder. Some- 
times, in addition to these, he must oversee catechists and 
preachers, be agent for inland stations, and preach occasionally 
in English I The thing amounts to a perfect absurdity. Some 
men may endure such wear and tear for a while ; but the results 
of their labors are nullified by desultoriness. Regularity and 
efficiency are impossible. Nothing can be prosecuted with 
sufficient vigor, either to obtain skill in it, or secure the best 
results. 

It is truly surprising that the few missionaries scattered over 
the world, should have accomplished what we now see. It 
proves that, in general, they must have been extraordinary men. 
And it is very well to practise on the doctrine, that it is better to 
wear out than rust out. But such a system as is now pursued, 
only makes men tear out. 

Schools might be maintained by the wives of missionaries, or 
by brethren who shall call themselves schoolmasters. Where 
preaching in English is deemed necessary, let a brother separate 
liimself to that work; or let it be done by one whose age, experi- 
ence, and mental cultivation, will enable him to do it with extem- 
poraneous ability. Theological or boarding schools should enjoy 
the whole services of a select individual. Translations and au- 
thorship, with some avocation requiring bodily activity, are work 
enough for one man at each principal station. Further specifi- 
cations must depend on each particular case. 

Beside the advantages on the spot of such a disti-ibution of 



422 MODE OF CONDUCTING MISSIONS. 

duties it would have a hapi)y effect at home in showing tlie 
cliurches tlie actual state and operations of tiieir phalanx abroad. 
They would see what branches of the work most needed reen- 
forcemeiit. They would better understand what result should be 
expected in each particular department. They would particular- 
ly see what proportion of labor is njade to bear on the imme- 
diate conversion of souls, and the whole operation of the mis- 
sionary enterprise would stand transj)arent and self-explained. 

14. There should be more concentration of efibrt. 

In every mission there should be one point where operations 
should be conducted with great vigor and by many hands. 

By placing at this point the translator, the priuting-otfice, the 
school for native assistants, and two or three evangelists, beside 
those brethren whose pro])er field is pestilent or inaccessible 
except during a portion of the year, there would be secured many 
advantages. Numerous questions from minor stations, which 
must now wait the tedious process of a reference to the Board, 
might be safely left to the decision of such a body of brethren on 
tiie spot. Vacancies at various points might be immediately 
supplied — a matter, as has been shown, of great consequence. 
Thus a farmer, penetrating into the forest, makes first an efiijctive 
clearing where he establishes himself, and from whence he may 
extend his openings at pleasure. Thus an army always has its 
" head quarters." Thus the primitive church retained at Jeru- 
salem a body of princi])al apostles and elders, to whom disputed 
questions were referred, from whence the brethren went Ibrth 
to their spheres, and to whom they returned, reporting suc- 
cesses and refreshing themselves with genial society. 

The majority of employments which were just named as ab- 
surdly falling on the same individual, may be divided and prose- 
cuted at such central station with effect. Thus the brethren 
who go foith, two by two, to lonelier stations, will have fewer 
duties, and may divide these with a prosjject of mutual success. 
The establishment of such a body of brethren would constitute a 
safe band of counsellors both to one another and to their society 
at home ; it would inspire confidence in the natives that the un- 
dertaking was permanent; it could supply for a time any out- 
station vacated by the retirement or death of a missionary ; and 
it would be a favorable location for new missionaries to study 
for a year or two, and acquire a knowledge of their field. 

There should be more concentration as to the portions of the 
world which we attempt to evangelize. Those regions whicli 
have received the largest sup])ly of missionaiies have been the 



MODE OF COx\DUCTIx\G MISSIONS. 423 

most encouraging. Labrador and Greenland, with a population 
of but eight or nine thousand, liave fifty-one niissionaries and 
assistants. The West Indies have more tlian two hundred mis- 
sionaries ; and each of these may be coiuited equal to two in the 
East Indies, if we consider tliat they have not been oljhged to 
learn a language, or make dictionaries, translations, &c. Jamaica, 
with a population of four hundred thousand, has more than sixty 
European missionaries. The Sandwich Islands, with a popula- 
tion of one hundred and eight thousand, has eighty-seven mis- 
sionaries and assistants. The portion of Karens which have re- 
ceived the services of Boardman, Wade, and 3Iason, and which 
has been blessed in actual conversions more than almost any 
other, amounts to less than six thousand. 

On the other hand, there are single cities containing popula- 
tions of hundreds of thousands, with but one, two, or three mis- 
sionaries ; and in these we hear of small success. It is to be 
feared that the church has, in its anxiety to spread wide the 
tidings of salvation, been beguiled into too great diffusiveness of 
labor. It seems hard to keep sending men to countries already 
entered, while whole kingdoms and tribes are left to perish. But 
it had better be thus. Only thus can the work be done. Only 
thus will the church be able to see clearly and impressively how 
much land remains to be possessed, and feel the inadequacy of 
lier present operetions. 

15. A larger proportion of effort should be directed to the 
more enlightened nations, and to the higher classes in all nations. 

Our efforts have hitherto been expended chiefly on Esqui- 
maux, Lajjlanders, Greenlanders, Tartars, American Indians, 
Sandwich Islanders, Hottentots, Bushmen, Nicobarians, Malays, 
Negroes, and Slaves. Converts have indeed been made, and 
immortal souls saved. But the results terminate on the spot. 
Such i)eoj)le have no such influence on adjacent nations as had 
the citizens of Jerusalem, Damascus, Alexandria, Rome, Corinth, 
or Ephesus. They have no commerce to spread abroad the 
Iioly leaven, and few pecuniary resources to enable them to join 
in the work of giving Bibles and ministers to the rest of the 
world. 

Among tribes so degraded, the missionary contends with brutal 
ignorance, strong temptations to hypocrisy, deep poverty, petty- 
wars, and frequent changes in congregation ; together with the in- 
conveniences of unsuitable food and habitation, and the most vio- 
lent change in all his j;revious habits and associations. Had we 
begun by spreading the gospel among our more immediate 



424 MODE OF rO>DUCTIXG INJISSrONS. 

neighbors and the greater kingdoms, missionaries, and mission- 
ary influences in a thousand ibrnis, would have niultipUed spon- 
taneously. Converted Arabs, CJiinese, Hindus, or IJurmans 
could have spread out among ruder tribes, without tliose violent 
transitions which curtail the hves of our brethren, or those ex- 
cessive expenses which keep down the extent of our efforts. 

It may be tiiought the Hindus should not be named in this 
collection, so much having been, done for them. But the extent 
of this country should be remembered, and the number of mis- 
sionaries, which, with all the late augmentations, have been sent 
to occupy it. From Bombay to Bankok, and from Ceylon to 
Delhi, the number of missionaries is stated by a late writer 
in the Calcutta Christian Observer to be one hundred and 
thirty. This esiimate comprehends at least 200,000,000 in- 
habitants — one n)issionary to 1,538,461 souls. The region de- 
scribed, it will be perceived, includes Burmah, as well as Hin- 
dustan, and is emi)hatically that part of the field to which the 
attention of the church has been of late years particularly 
drawn. 

Li scarcely any mission have the higher classes received their 
full share of attention. They have not been so freely visited at 
their houses ; and when visited, it has rather been the act of 
respect, or to secure advantages. The visit is seldom for the 
express purpose of winning their soids, as is the case when the 
jjoor are sought. The oftener such visits are paid without the 
disclosure of a deep anxiety for the conversion of his soul, the 
more does the chief, or rich man, grow satisfied to remain 
as he is, and to sup])ose that his toleration or friendship is all 
that is expected. We should abhor the spirit which gathers 
ministers round great men, to share their gifts, to bask in their 
favor, to secure political enactments in favor of religion, or to 
gain popularity and distinction among the common people. But 
we should leave no efforts unattempted to save their souls. The 
prophecies which cheer us in our work, specify such persons 
as among the fruit, and declare that they shall be nursing fathers 
and mothers to the church. Ca3sar's court contained disciples. 
Some of the "mighty," and of "honorable ones, not a few," ap- 
pear among the converts to ajiostolic zeal. 

CoxcLUDiNG Remarks. Many suggestions to the churches at 
home offer themselves. I will venture only two or three. 

1. The number of missionaries should be greatly increased. 
Numerous stations, occupied now by a single individual, should 



MODE OF COiNDUCTING MISSIONS. 



425 



be reenforced by one, two, and in some cases five or six brethren. 
No post has been taken, which seems untenable or useless ; 
none from which the occupant wishes to retreat. Each de- 
scribes openings for usefulness which he cannot embrace. If 
we mean merely to keep our present position, there is need of a 
fresh laborer in every station and department, who may be coming 
forward in his qualifications, and be ready to take up the task at 
any moment, in case of the death of the present incumbent. 

There must be a wrong in concentrating preachers among a 
portion of mankind, to the extent seen in England and Ameri- 
ca, while whole nations lie unblest with the truth. Such as 
have not known or considered the proportion of ministers in 
England and America, should ponder the following facts. 

The following table takes up some of the counties in Eng- 
land alphabetically, so as to furnish a fair sample of the whole. 



County. 



Bedfordshire, . 
Berkshire, .... 
Buckinghamshu'e, 
Cambridgeshire, . 
Cheshire, . . . 
Cornwall, . . . 
Cumberland, 
Derbyshire, . 



Jliea. 


C/iurckf'S. 




Population. 


Average 
Ninnber of 


Square Miles. 

463 


Established. 

127 


Voluutiiry. 

72 


Total. 


Squ}s to a 
AJinister* 


199 


95,000 


477 


752 


160 


83 


243 


145,000 


597 


738 


214 


89 


303 


146,000 


482 


857 


174 


87 


261 


143,000 


548 


1052 


142 


162 


304 


334,000 


1099 


1:330 


221 


328 


549 


302,000 


550 


1523 


145 


90 


235 


169,000 


719 


1028 


177 


189 


365 


237,000 


649 



Tn New England, taken at large, the proportion of ministers is 
not much short of the above average. In Massachusetts are 1252 
ministers; population, 650,000; average souls to each minister, 
519. In New Hampshire are 412 mini-sters; population, 269,633; 
average number of souls to each minister, 654. In Connecticut 
are 482 ministers ; population, 298,000 ; average number of souls 
to each, 620.* The great cities of the United States are shown, 
by Rev. Messrs. Reed and Mattheson, to have a larger proportion 
of ministers, than those of England and Scotland. 

The contrast between one missionary, and he a foreigner, im- 
])erfect in the language, and unsustained by surrounding Chris- 
tians, attempting to bless a million of souls, and a pastor in 
Great Britain or America to every four or five hundred souls, 

*, These numbers are taken from the Registers of the respective Stales. 
In the other Northern Stales Ihe proportiou is about the same. 

18* 



426 MODE OF COADUCTIAG MISSIO.\S. 

and aided by a liiiudred Cliiistian iufluenceSj is both painful and 
humiliating. 

2. Numerous hiy brethren are immediately wanted. 

A glance at the employments eiuunerated a little while ago, 
shows how few of them fall exclusively within the province of a 
minister. Except ))rcaching, administering or(!inances, and pre- 
siding over church discipline, they may as well be done by 
laymen. Perhaps one reason why so little is said of seme of 
these departments, in the New Testament, is, that that history 
gives professedly the life of Christ, and the acts of apostles. We 
certainly see that some branches of missionary duty v/ere con- 
signed to laymen, such, for instance, as the secular concerns, the 
care of the poor, and the settlement of disputes. There are 
many brethren not inferior to the best ministers in piety. A 
knowledge of business and accounts, and habits of order, de- 
spatch, and economy, give some of these superior qualifications 
for some parts of the work. Such services as are rendered by 
lay brethren in our own country, are greatly wanted. 

It is neither necessary nor desirable that all laymen, who for 
Christ's sake go to the heathen, should j)ut themselves under the 
patronage of a society, or give their whole time to religious 
services. The brethren scattered from Jerusalem by persecution, 
no doubt pursued their secular callings, in the cities whither 
they fled. Yet through them the holy influence was spread. 

If persecution wt;re now to break out in England, or the United 
States, thousands of church members would pass to other parts 
of the world, and, we may presume, would labor to establish 
pure religion wherever they might find a home. May we not 
fear that if we remain supine, some such necessity for dispersitni 
may be permitted to occur? By going without the impulse of 
persecution, the sacrifices involved in emigration are immensely 
lessened. The ties of fiiendshi|), kindred, and business, may be 
preserved, and pro})erty retained. In fact, the evils incurred by 
voluntary expatriation are submitted to by multitudes, for no 
higher end than the possible improvement of outward circum- 
stances. 

Finally. A vastly higher state of piety at home must be 
realized. 

On this copious and most important theme, 1 must now confine 
myself to a few sentences. But I pass it by with the more con- 
tent, because it is a subject on which others can write as well as 
one who has travelled, and which is often calling forth able 
works. I think it has been proved that the measure of mission- 



MODE OF CONDUCTUNG MISSIONS. 427 

ary success is equal to tlie amount and kind of effort em])lo3ed. 
But all must agree, that had the whole movement been more 
aj)ostoiic, there would be seen much more fruit. Want of piety 
makes missionaries less successful, just as it does other ministers. 
Were they absorbingly interested in their work, and highly qual- 
ified for it, by large measures of the spirit of Christ, they would 
seldomer fall into the subordinate and less self-denying depart- 
ments of labor, and would prosecute their proper work, not only 
with more commensurate zeal and skill, but with a greater 
blessing. 

How shall such missionaries be expected from a religious 
community pervaded by love of ease, elegance, and gain? They 
come forth from the mass, and resemble the mass. Streams rise 
no higher than their sources. In vain we harangue depai'ting 
missionaries upon the necessity of a holy weanedness from the 
world, and contempt of ease, if we have no more ourselves. 
These are not the fruits of mere volition, or sudden effort. They 
are the result of circumstances and self-training, through the 
steady agency of the Spirit. None but extraordinary persons 
rise above the level of their times ; and we cannot expect every 
missionary, and missionary's wife, and printer, and school teacher, 
to be an extraordinary person, wholly in advance of the churches. 
They are, moreover, sent out too young to have made veiy great 
Christian attainments, even if they are extraordinary persons. 
The ordinary state of the church must be made right, and then 
ordinary persons will have right views, aims, and qualities; and 
missionaries will possess proper qualifications, and bear abroad 
a proper spirit. 

Every professed Christian, therefore, may aid the cause of mis- 
sions by promoting a return to apostolic simplicity and singleness 
of heart among all Christians. This would not only furnish the 
right kind of missionaries, but the right number, and the proper 
support. When every believer shall habitually pray not only for a 
blessing on the work at large, but for a clear perception of his 
own duty in the matter, and shall cherish the spirit of entire 
self-dedication, we shall have abundant means and proper men. 



OPINION^ OF REV. ADOXIRAM JUDSON. 

From a letter addressed to Rer. Howard Malcom, dated Maulmain, Feb. 25, 1845. 

" You ask my opinion of the manner in which you discharged the duties 
of your agency. I answer, as well as it was possible for you to do. I 
regard your journal as one of the best, indeed the very best book on mis- 
sions extant. There is more correct information in that book on subjects 
connected with modern missions than can be found iu any other publica- 
tion." 

OPINION OF REV, FRANCIS WAYLAND, D.D., 
President of Brown University, Providence, R. I. 

FROM THE CHRISTIAN REVIEW, FOE MARCH 1839. 

" AVe are decidedly of the opinion, that this volume will hold a perma- 
nent, and a high rank, among the books of modern travel. Mr. Malcom 
possesses, in the character of his mind, many of the most valuable requi- 
sites for a tourist. To great perseverance, unusual presence of mind, acute 
observation, and uncommon colloquial ability, he unites business habits of 
the first order, strong common sense, and much natural shrewdness. All 
these he has put forth in the present work. Nor is this all. He has not 
been satisfied with making a merely entertaining and readable book. His 
aim has been higher. He has endeavored to render his labor permanently 
useful to the cause of missions and of literature. We are happy to say, 
that, in our opinion, he has succeeded. Unless we greatly err, this volume 
will become a stock book of travels, and will remain as a book of reference 
and entertainment, after many of its contemporary journals have been for- 
gotten. We do not know of any other similar work in the English lan- 
guage, from which a reader will derive so much accurate and definite 
information respecting the manners, customs, trade, productions and 
manufactures of Southern Asia. The labor in preparing them must have 
been great, but we believe that it will prove to have been successfully 
expended. Mr. Malcom has shed new light upon a large portion of the 
globe, with which we have been heretofore but slightly acquainted, and 
will, we doubt not, receive the thanks of the literary, as well as the religious 
public. The style of the work is unpretending, direct, and calm ; some- 
times rising to eloquence, and frequently enlivened with graphic sketches, 
and original suggestions. It is also rendered uncommonly valuable, by a 
great number of engravings, taken from drawings made on the spot, and 
happily illustrative of the manners and customs of the East. We hail the 
work as a valuable addition to our knowledge of the East ; and, specially, 
as throwing much and v.iluable light upon the missionary field. We trust 
its success will equal its deserts." 

FROM THE "ECLECTIC REVIEW," ENGLAND. 

The writer describes Hindustan as " the land where we passed some of our earliest 
and most buoyant years." 

" The missionary press has, within a few years past, presented to the read- 
ing public many volumes of a very interesting character, containing the 
observations of Ellis, Stewart, Williams, Medhurst, Gutzlaff', and others, 
on several portions of the world hitherto little known ; but we venture to 
say, that never has it produced a work of more interest or utility, than the 
present. To all our readers, wishing to have a general knowledge of our 
Indian empire, and especially to those who have an interest in the progress 
of our holy religion in that country, we heartily and strongly recommend 
this volume as intrinsically valuable, and as embodying a mass of intelli- 
gence on India, which, so far as our information extends, will be sought iu 
vain iu an equal number of pages of any volume of Euelish literature." 
(428) 



INDEX. 



Abbott, Mr., a fellow-passenger, 38. 

Absurdities of Hindu literature, 233 

Additional labors of missionaries, 360. 

Amusements, Burman, 153. 

Andaman Islands, 33. 

Architectural skill of Burmans, 132. 

Army, British, in India, 279. 

Arrival at Amherst, 35. 

Ascending the Irrawaddy, 75. 

Assayers of precious metals, 157. 

Aurea Chersonensis, 29. 

Ara, first sight of, 85 ; distance from 
Rangoon, 86 ; ground plot, 87 ; 
sacred edifices, 88 ; no charitable 
institutions, 88 ; magnificent mon- 
asteries, 88 ; pagodas, 89 ; number 
of priests, 89; palace, 89; gentle- 
man's carriage, 90 ; population, 
90 ; manufactures, 91 ; market, 91 ; 
visits to the great, 92; sitting "a 
la mode," 93 ; mathematical argu- 
ment, 93 ; Meawade woougyee, 93; 
Thathenabyng, or supreme pontiff, 
95 ; garden, 96 ; visit from Dupha 
Gam, 96; climate, 97; commence- 
ment of missionary efforts, 97 ; Dr. 
Price, 98 ; Roman Catholics, 100 ; 
king's barge, 102; departure, 103. 

B. 

Ball of fire on mast head, 48. 

Balu Island, 52. 

Bankok, floating houses, 307; cli- 
mate, 312; sacred edifices, 313; 
fruits, 320 ; Gutzlaff's visit, 323 ; 
mission premises, 325. 

Baptism at Ko Chet Thing's village,60 

Bedagat, 184. 

Bells, mode of. casting in Burmah, 
159; immense size, 159. 

Bengalee tracts and books, 373. 

Betel, mode of chewing, 137 ; picture 
of the tree, 325. 

Bheestie, or water-carrier, 222. 

Bible class at sea, 15. 

Biblical literature indebted to Mis- 
sionaries, 373. 

Bhookoo or Karen prophet, 50. 



Birth of Gaudama, 110. 

Boarded by a slaver, 351. 

Boardman's grave, 50. 

Boats on the Irrawaddy, 74. 

Boodh, meaning of the term, 180 ; 
the next Boodh, 184. 

Boodhism, first taught at Paghan, 
84; when introduced into Burmah, 
110 ; prevalence in the world, 180 ; 
antiquity, 181; remarks upon the 
system, 211. 

Brahminism, antiquity of, 181 ; char- 
acter of, 276. 

Brahmins, 278. 

Bungalow preaching, at Calcutta,244. 

Burmah, different names, 110; bound- 
aries, 110; seats of government, 
110, HI ; history of, 111 ; attacked 
by Chinese, 112 ; war with the 
English, 116; features of country, 
119; climate, 120; seasons, 120; 
mountains, 121 ; minerals, 211 ; 
gold and silver mines, 121 ; rivers, 
125; soil, 126; fruits and timbers, 
126 ; population, 130. 

Burmans, villages, 105; chronology, 
110 ; buildings, 131 ; food, 133; 
dress, 134; ornaments, 135; man- 
ners and customs, 136; marriage, 
146 ; polygamy, 146 ; divorce, 147 ; 
diseases, 147; funerals, 150; am- 
usements, 153 ; manufactures, 156; 
government, 161 ; orders of nobility 
162; laws, 166; currency, 176; 
slavery, 177; religion, 180. 



Calcutta, landing at, 219 ; charitable 
institutions, 226 ; colleges, 231 ; 
religious edifices, 237. 

Canoes, 156. 

Canton, appearance of, 332 ; streets, 
334 ; shops, 335 ; trades, 336 ; tem- 
ples, 341 ; priests and nuns, 342 ; 
benevolent institutions, 346. 

Cape of Good Hope, arrival at, 349 ; 
situation, 349 ; charitable institu- 
tions, 350. 

Caravans, of Shyans, 82. 

(429) 



430 



Carey, William, room in which he 
died, 247 ; epitaph, 248. 

Caves on the Dagaing and Salwen 
rivers, 57. 

Charms, inserted under skin, 138. 

Cheroots, how made, 138. 

China, populousness of, 331 ; small- 
footed women, 338 ; tombs, 339 ; 
temple, 341 ; pagoda, 343 ; sects, 
344 ,• opium trade, 346. 

Chinese procession at Maulmain, 55 ; 
residents at Sagaing, 101 ; attack 
Burmah unsuccessfully, 112; geo- 
graphy, 336. 

Christ the pattern for missionaries, 
406. 

Churning, Bengal mode of, 250, 

Cleaning cotton, mode of, 158. 

Climate of Ava, 97; Bankok, 312. 

Coal found in Burmah, 124, 

Coins of Siam, 319. 

Collateral labors of missionaries, 359. 

Commerce of Maulmain, 61 ; of Ran- 
goon, 68 ; of Burmah, 172 ; of Siam, 
318. 

Comparison between the number of 
missionaries and that of ministers 

' at home, 425. 

Comprehensiveness of religious sym- 
pathy, 13. 

Concentration of effort, 422. 

Conversion of sailors, 34. 

Converts to Christianity, 379, 

Convict ship, 19. 

Coral strands, 106. 

Costume of Burmans, 135 ; of Siam- 
ese, 317 ; of Chinese, 330. 

Cradle, Burman and Siamese, 137. 

D. 

Day, Mr., arrival at Madras, 281. 

Dead bodies in the Hoogly, 219. 

Departure from United States, 13 ; 
from Maulmain, 67 ; from Rangoon 
for Ava, 74 ; from Ava, 103 ; from 
Madras, 281 ; from Malacca, 294 ; 
from Singapore, 304 ; from Siam, 
328 ; from China, 348 ; from Cape 
of Good Hope, 351. 

Disputations undesirable, 413. 

Division of labor, 421. 

Doctrines of BooJhism, 188. 

Downward tendency of idolatry, 363. 

E. 

JEducation of native assistants, 417. 



Effect of Missions on the churches 

at home, 383 ; 385, 
Efforts for sailors, 19 ; results, 34. 
Elephants, in Burmah, 172. 
Encouragements in the missions, 355. 
English language, value of, to native 

assistants, 418. 
Erroneous labors of missionaries,360, 
Extortions of Burman rulers, 163. 



Farther-India, 109. 
First Sabbath in Burmah, 35. , 
Floating houses at Bankok, 307. 
Foot-ball, novel mode of, 164. 
Funerals, Burman, 149. 

G. 

Gaudama, birth, 110 ; parentage, 182; 
death, 183 ; discourses, 191 ; im- 
presssions of his foot, 195. 

Gilding, excellence of Burman, 157. 

Gold and silver mines of Burmah,121. 

Gratitude, of Karen Christians, 45. 

Gutzlaff, 323 ; 344. 

H. 

Harbors of Burmah, 172. 
Heber's death, 268 ; grave, ib. 
Higher classes to be regarded, 424. 
Hindu astronomy, 233. 
History of Burmah, 111 ; of Siam, 315 
Hither and Farther India, 109. 
Hoogly river, 215; scenery, 217. 
Houses in Burmah, 131. 



Idolaters, first sight of, 31. 
Illustrations of Scripture, John 13 : 

10, 136 ; Deut. 32 : 5, 229, 255 ; 

] Kings 18 : 46, 255 ; Proverbs 21 : 

1, 263. 
Incentives to increased missionary 

exertion, 354. 
Irrawaddy, voyage up, 74 ; my boat, 

75 ; tract distribution upon, 86 ; 

perils from squalls, 86 ; robbers, 86; 

descending voyage, 103. 
Itineracies, 412. 



Jewelry, Burman, 156. 
Jones, Mr., leaves Burmah for Siam, 
324. 



431 



Judson, Mr., personal appearance, 
52 ; residence, 66 ; sufferings at 
Ava, 116. 

Judson's, Mrs. Ann 11., grave, 36. 

Jungle, different from forest, 119. 

K. 

Karen, churches, 45 ; language re- 
duced to writing, 42. 
Kincaid, E., arrival of, at Ava, 98. 

L. 

Languages reduced to writing by 

missionaries, 372. 
Laymen wanted in the missionary 

field, 426. 
Leper hospital at Calcutta, 230. 
Leprosy, 148. 

Lives lost in scientific enterprises,369 
Longevity of Burmans, 147. 
Lying, universal with Burmans, 143. 

M. 

Madras, exposed harbor, 251 ; land- 
ing, 252 ; population, 254. 

Malacca, 295; college, 298. 

Malay peninsula, 309. 

Marble quarries near Ava, 101 ; 123. 

Marriages in Burmah, 146. 

Mason, Mr., baptisms by, 43. 

Mata village and church, 40. 

Maulmain, 60 ; evening walks, 63 ; 
establishment of the mission by 
Mr. Boardman, 64. 

Measure of missionary success, 356. 

Meinam river, 305. 

Mengoon pagoda, 102 ; when com- 
menced, 114. 

Mergui, city of, 46. 

Merit, Boodhistical, 190. 

Mineral riches of Burmah, 121. 

Misrule of Burman ofiicers, 163. 

Missionary physicians, 402. 

Mission press at Maulmain, 64; Cal- 
cutta, 244; Bankok, 324. 

Missionaries to be sent in pairs, 420. 

Mode of eating in Burmah, 134. 

Mohurrum, a Mussulman festival, 55. 

Moravians at Nicobar, 30. 

Mosques in Calcutta, 237. 

Mrs. Judson's grave, 36. 

Mrs. Sigourney's lines on Mrs. Jud- 
son, 37. 

Music, Burman, 154 ; Bengalee, 238. 



N. 

Native assistants, education of, 417 
Nat worship, 199. 
Navy, Siamese, 318; Chinese, 332. 
Newell, Harriet, 246. 
Newspapers in Calcutta, 237. 
Nobles, Burman, 161. 

0. 

Oath, singular form of, 166. 
Ocean thoughts, 15. 
Opium trade, horrors of, 346. 
Ordained pastors necessary, 414. 
Oriental alphabets, 400, 



Paghan, ruins of, 82 ; reverence for, 
83; Boodhism first taught here, 84. 

Pagoda, great Shoodagon, at Ran- 
goon, 69; splendid, at Prome, 77; 
new, at Ava, 118; general model 
of, 192; worship, 196; form in 
Hindustan, 269 ; in China, 343. 

Pagoda slaves, 71. 

Palankeen travelling in India, 55. 

Paper, Burman manufacture of, 160. 

Parting regrets, 107; 328. 

Pegu, 73. 

Periodicals supported by mission- 
aries, 398. 

Persecutions, in Madagascar, 380. 

Petrifactions on the Irrawaddy, 81 ; 
varieties of, 123. 

Physicians, missionary, 402. 

Piety of the Karens, 42. 

Pondicherry, 261. 

Poverty of heathen languages, 362. 

Prayer, Boodhistical mode of, 197. 

Preaching to an assembly of mis- 
sionaries, 51 ; 326. 

Preaching to resident foreigners, 397. 

Preaching, a primary duty, 409. 

Preparatory laborsofmissionaries,359 

Present activity of slave trade, 352. 

Price, Dr., 98. 

Pride of Burmans, 143. 

Priesthood, Burman, 200; rules of, 
201; dress, 202; morality, 202; 
mode of preaching, 203 ; daily sup- 
port, 204; number, 205; funeral 
rites, 206 ; political influence, 210. 

Priestesses, Burman, 210. 

Prome, 76; splendid pagoda, 77. 

Punishments in Burmah, 168. 

Purity of Missionaries, 107. 



432 



Q. 

Qualifications of native assistaBts,415 

R. 

Bainy season in Burmah, 120. 
Bam Mohun Boy, 238. 
Bangoon, location, 68 ; pagoda, 69. 
Beturn to the United States, 353. 
Bivers of Burmah, 124 ; 126. 
Bockets, Biirman, 159. 
Boman Catholics, at Ava, 100. 

S. 

Sacrifices of heathen converts, 380. 

Sagaing, 101. 

Sailors, efi"orts for, 19; conversion 
of several, 34. 

Salaries of civilians in India, 279. 

Salaries of missionaries, 408. 

Salt, manufactured in Burmah, 160. 

Salwen river, 56 ; sources, 125. 

Saugor Island, 216. 

Schools, how far to be relied upon, 388 

Sects, Boodhistical, 211. 

Self-denial, in unexpected forms, 409. 

Serampore, 246 ; college, 247 ; grave- 
yard, 248 ; disinterestedness of the 
missionaries, 249. 

Seringham, 269. 

Shyan chobwaws, 94. 

Siam : nobles, 399 ; history of, 315 ; 
population, 316; army, 317; com- 
merce, 318 ; money, 319 ; missions, 
323. 

Siamese language, 322. 

Silk, use of, by Burmans, 135.^ ^ 

Singapore, 284. 

Slaver, 351. 

Slavery, Burman law of, 169 ; preva- 
lence of, 177 ; in the Carnatic, 271 ; 
in Siam, 321. 

Slaves of the pagoda, 71. 

Slave trade, still active, 352. 

Smoking, universal in Burmah, 138. 

Snake-charmers, 253. 

Solemn inquiry, 355. 

Stations not to be interrupted, 419. 

St. Helena, 351. 

Style of living to be adopted by 
missionaries, 404. 

Stocks, punishment of, 167. 

Strait of Malacca, 283. 

Suitable presents for Karens, 41. 

3 «D.5»# 



Superstitions of Burmans, 198. 
Swartz, 265 ; grave of, 267. 



Tambiranadistinguishedconvert,25T 

Tan j ore, 264. 

Tattooing, mode of, 138. 

Tavoy, 40. 

Teloogoos, 258. 

Temperance, of Karen converts, 44. 

Tenasserim provinces, 66. 

Testimony to purity of missionaries, 

107 ; to the usefulness of their 

services, 354. 
The Hopia tree, 37. 
Tour among Karen villages, 53. 
Tract distribution at Kewnew, 74. 
Tranquebar, 261. 
Translations, 372; errors of, 394. 
Trichinopoly, 268. 
Tristan d'Acunha, 24. 
Tropical and aquatic novelties, 21. 

U. 
Umerapoora, 102. 

V. 

Vinton, Mr., arrival in Burmah, 54. 

Visits to the great at Ava, 92; at 
Bankok, 309 ; in Canton, 340. 

Voyage to India, 13 ; on the coast 
of Mergui, 46; to Calcutta, 215; 
to Madras, 251 ; to Singapore, 
281 ; to Malacca, 294 ; to Bankok, 
304 ; to China, 329 ; to the United 
States, 348. 

W. 

Wade's, Mrs., school, 43. 
Walk over the Tavoy mountains, 39. 
Washing, singular mode of, 224. 
Water festival of the Burmans, 55. 
Wats, or Sacred places in Siam, 313. 
AVayland's (Pres.) opinion, 410. 
White elephant of Burmah, 172. 
Wives of missionaries, usefuLnesa of, 

358. 
Women, Burman, 145. 
Worship, Boodhistical, 196. 

Z. 

Zayats, description of, 140 ; 193. 
Zayats, provided for strangers, 140. 







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